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ORTHOEPY 


AN  ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON  PRONUNCIATION 


FOR  THE   USE   OP 


TEACPIERS    AND    SCHOOLS 


BY 


ALBERT  SALISBURY,  A.  M., 


WitJi  J*hyshdo(jical  Engravin^ja. 


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MADISON,  WIS.: 

WM.    J.    PARS   &   CO 

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PHONOLOGY 


AXD 


OKTHOEPT 


AN  ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON  PRONUNCIATION 


FOR  THE  USE  OP 


TEACHERS  AND  SCHOOLS, 


BY 

ALBERT  SALISBURY,  A.  M., 

COKDUCTOB  OP  TEACHERS'*  INSTITUTES,   AND  TEACHER  OF  READING  IN" 
THE  WHITEWATER  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  WISCONSIN. 


With  l^hyshdogical  Engravings. 


MADISON,  WIS  : 

WM.    J.    PARK    &   CO 

1S79. 


COPYRIGHT, 

WM.   J.   PARK    &    CO 

1879. 


/r  duLto^ptyy^ 


DAYID  ATWOOD,  STEKOTYPBR  AND  PBINTEB, 

MadlBon,  Wis. 


GUT 


PEEFACE. 


An  accurate  and  elegant  pronunciation  forms  no  small 
factor  of  a  liberal  culture.  Careless  and  uncouth  speech  is  the 
almost  certain  index  of  a  general  lack  of  cultivation  and  re- 
finement. 

Orthoepy,  therefore,  has  rightfully  claimed  the  attention  of 
the  jStudent,  even  in  its  past  estate.  But  a  new  interest  and 
an  added  value  have  been  given  to  it  by  the  recent  rapid  de- 
velopment of  phonetic  science.  What  once  seemed  a  field  of 
arbitrary  custom,  is  now  coming  into  view  as  an  orderly  realm 
of  natural  science.  Orthoepy  can  no  longer  be  studied  apart 
from  phonology  except  by  the  merest  empiricist. 

Says  Prof.  Whitney:  "The  study  of  phonetics  has  long 
Deen  coming  forward  into  more  and  more  prominence  as  an 
-jssential  part  of  the  study  of  language ;  a  thorough  understand- 
ing of  the  mode  of  production  of  alphabetic  sounds,  and  of 
their  relations  to  one  another  as  determined  by  their  physical 
character,  has  become  an  indispensable  qualification  of  a  linguis- 
tic scholar.  And  he  who  cannot  take  to  pieces  his  native  utter- 
ance, and  give  a  tolerably  exact  account  of  every  item  in  it, 
lacks  the  true  foundation  on  which  everything  else  should 
repose." 

This  little  book  is  submitted  to  the  public  in  the  belief 
that  there  is  a  demand    for   such  a  work.     It  does  not  aim  at 


211 


4  PREFACE. 

any  elaborately  scientific  presentation  of  the  subject  treated, 
but  only  to  give  a  simple  and  concise  statement  of  its  bare  ele- 
ments,—  avoiding,  on  the  one  hand,  the*  ancient  crudities  of 
statement  and  nomenclature  still  current  in  some  quarters  and, 
on  the  other,  the  fantastic  notions  so  often  projected  by  eccen- 
tric theorizers. 

It  has  been  the  resolute  purpose  of  the  writer  to  make  a 
stnall  book.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  thought  that  he  has  succeeded 
too  well,  since  so  much  has  been  excluded  which  would  be  of 
interest  to  the  inquiring  student.  The  work  lays  but  slight 
claim  to  originality  or  novelty  of  matter,  and  none  at  all  to 
completeness  of  treatment 

Though  adapted  to  use  as  a  text-book  for  classes,  it  is  in- 
tended to  serve,  also,  as  a  teacher's  manual,  a  guide  to  oral 
instruction  in  general  exercises  or  in  connection  with  reading 
classes;  and,  lastly,  as  a  vade  inecnm  for  private  reference  and 
study. 

The  author  desires  to  make  acknowledgment  to  his  esteemed 
colleague,  Prof.  W.  S.  Johnson,  for  valuable  suggestions  in 
various  directions. 

State  Normal  School, 
Whit&tvater^   Wis.,  Se^tembeTy  i8jg. 


PHOJfOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

Orthoepy  is  tlie  art  of  correct  pronunciation;  it 
treats  of  the  various  sounds  of  human  speech  and  their 
proper  combination  in  words.  • 

It  also  takes  account  of  the  notation  by  which  sounds 
are  discriminated  to  the  eye;  hence,  it  is  closely  related 
to  Orthography,  with  which  it  is  often  confused. 

Any  thorough  or  scientific  understanding  of  the  facts 
and  principles  of  Orthoepy,  demands  a  previous  knowl- 
edge of  so  much  of  Physiology  as  pertains  to  the  ma- 
chinery of  vocalization  and  articulation,  and  so  much 
of  Physics  as  pertains  to  the  theory  of  sound. 

That  branch  of  science  which  treats  of  the  structure 
and  mode  of  operation  of  the  bodily  organs  requisite  to 
speech,  is  called  Vocal  Physiology. 

That  division  of  the  science  of  Acoustics  which  treats 
of  articulate  sounds,  their  physical  formation  and  char- 
acter, is  called  Phon^etics,  or  Phoi^ology. 

The  art  of  representing  speech-sounds  to  the  eye, 
accurately  and  systematically,  giving  to  each  sound 
some  distinct  and  appropriate  symbol,  may  be  called 
Phokotypy. 


6  PIIOXOLOGY   AND    ORTHOEPY. 

That  part  of  general  Grammar  which  deals  with  the 
current  imperfect  and  but  partially  phonetic  representa- 
tion of  sounds  and  ideas,  is  Orthography. 

Orthography  is  historical  in  its  origin  — a  matter  of  growth; 
Phonotypy  is  of  scientific  origin  — a  matter  of  theory. 


CHAPTER  I. 

VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 

1.  Organs  of  Yoice: 

The  organs  of  voice  are  in  part  identical  with  the 
organs  of  respiration.  They  are  the  lungs,  diaphragm, 
intercostal  muscles,  bronchi  and  trachea,  larynx,  and 
pharynx. 

2.  The  lungs  constitute  the  central  organ  of  the 
vocal  machinery.  They  are  two  spongy  masses  en- 
closed in  cases  of  a  tough  air-tight  membrane  called 
the  pleura.  These  masses  are  composed  of  cellular 
tissue  enclosing  an  immense  number  of  little  air-cells, 
air-tubes,  blood-vessels,  and  nerves. 

A  clear  idea  of  their  general  structure  may  be  ob- 
tained by  examining  the  lights,  or  lungs,  of  any  slaught- 
ered animal.  The  alternate  expansion  and  contraction 
of  the  lungs  result  in  the  process  of  breathing,  which 
is  the  basis  of  vocalization. 

3.  The  diaphragm  is  a  circular  sheet  of  muscle  and 
tendon  which  forms  the  partition  between  the  two 
great  cavities  of  the  body,  the  thorax,  or  chest,  and  the 
abdomen.  In  shape,  it  resembles  an  inverted  basin  or 
low  dome,  though  capable  of  flattening  into  the  form 
of  an  inverted  plate  or  saucer.  This  muscle  is  attached 
to  the  spine,  the  lower  part  of  the  breast-bone,  and  the 
lower  ribs  all  around.    The  lungs  and  heart  are  imme- 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  7 

diately  above  it;  the  stomacli  and  liver,  below  it.  The 
fibers  of  which  it  is  composed  radiate  from  the  center, 
like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel. 

Fig.  1.— Diaphragm,  Front  View, 


(JFVom  Hooker's  New  Fhy^ology^i 
1,  1,  Cavity  of  chest.       3,  2,  Diaphragm. 

4.  The  intercostal  muscles  are  short,  strap-like 
muscles,  connecting  the  ribs  on  either  side.  The  man- 
ner of  their  attachment  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Other 
muscles  connect  the  upper  pair  of  ribs  to  the  spinal 
column  in  the  neck.  By  the  contraction  of  all  these 
muscles,  the  ribs  are  elevated  at  their  front  extremities, 
each  pair  a  little  more  than  the  pair  above  it. 

Fig.  2.  —  Arrangement  of  Intercostal  Musclbs. 


8 


i'HONOLOGY   AND    ORTH  OEi^Y. 


5*  The  bronchi  are  minute  tubes  arising  in  the  air- 
cells  of  the  lungs  and  running  together  to  form  larger 
tubes  until  the  last  two  unite  in  the  trachea.  • 

The  trachear,  or  windpipe,  is  a  flexible  tube,  com- 
posed of  rings,  of  cartilage,  or  gristle,  covered  and  con- 
nected by  inside  and  outside  membranes.  These  cartil- 
aginous rings  are  incomplete,  opening  at  the  back  in 
the  manner  of  a  horseshoe,  thus  allowing  the  enclosing 
membranes  to  sink  into  a  groove,  in  which  the  oesopha- 
gus, or  gullet,  partly  lies. 

The  trachea  and  bronchi  form  the  connecting  pas- 
sage between  the  lungs  and  the  larynx  and  mouth. 

Fig.  3.  —  Lung,  Bronchi,  and  Trachea. 


1,  Otftliiieof  riglitltiiig;  9,  Left  lung;  3,  Larynx;  4,  Trachea;  5,  Lobes  of 
the  lung;  6,  7,  Bronchi;  9,  9,  Air  cells. 

6.  The  larynx  is  an  upper  story  to  the  windpipe. 
It  is  a  funnel-shaped  tube  or  box,  formed  of  plates,  in- 
stead of  rings,  of  cartilage,  with  enclosing  membranes 
and  operative  muscles.  It  is  somewhat  irregular  in 
shape,  the  adult  male  larynx  having  in  front  an  angu- 
lar projection  known  as  the  Adam's  apple. 

The  cartilages  of  the  larynx  are  nine  in  number;  of 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 


9 


which  the  principal  ones  are  the  thyroid,  the  cricoid, 
the  two  arytenoid  cartilages,  and  the  epiglottis. 

The  largest  of  these  is  the  thyroid  cartilage,  a  bent  plate 
forming  the  front  and  sides  of  the  shell  or  case  of  the  larynx, 
but  open  behind.  This  forms  the  Adam's  apple.  The  cricoid 
cartilage  is  so  named  from  its  resemblance,  in  form,  to  a  seal 
ring.  It  rests  upon  the  trachea,  forming  the  bed -piece  of  the 
larynx.  The  wide  portion  or  "  seal  "  is  at  the  back,  partly 
filling  the  posterior  opening  of  the  thyroid  cartilage.  Perched 
upon  the  top  of  this  seal  and  attached  to  the  back  of  it  by 
strong  Hgaments  are  the  two  arytenoid  (ladle- shaped)  cartilages. 
These  are  movable  laterally  by  several  muscles  attached  to 
them,  and  they  furnish  the  rear  point  of  attachment  for  the 
vocal  chords.  The  cuneiform  (wedge-shaped)  cartilages  are 
two  minute  elastic  bodies  projecting  from  the  arytenoid  car- 
tilages into  the  folds  of  the  true  vocal  chords,  for  about  half  their 
length.  The  cartilages  of  Wrisberg  and  of  Santorini  need 
not  be  described  here. 

*       Fig.  4.  —  Larynx,  Front  View  and  Section. 


Front  View:  1,  Epiglottis;  2,  Thyroid  cartilage;  3,  Cricoid  carti- 
lage ;  4,  Trachea. 

Section:  1,  2,  Cricoid  cartilage;  5,7,3,  Thyroid  cartilage;  6,  Aryte- 
noid cartilage;  5,  6,  The  vocal  chords;  9,e,  Crico- 
arytenoid muscle;  8,  Trachea. 


10  PHONOLOGY   AND    OKTIIOEPY. 

7.  The  YOcal  chords  are  the  speKiial  vocal  apparatus. 
They  are  situated  within  the  larynx  and  consist  of  two 
ligaments  or  bands  of  fibrous  tissue,  attached,  in  front, 
to  the  lower  part  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  and,  rearward, 
to  the  two  arytenoids.  These  ligaments,  along  with 
certain  muscles,  are  inclosed  in  two  folds  in  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  larynx.  When  inactive,  as  in  ordinary 
breathing  or  whispering,  they  present  to  the  eye  the  ap- 
pearance of  two  rounded  ridges  or  cushions  on  the  sides 
of  the  passage  or  cavity  of  the  larynx. 

Above  these  are  two  other  somewhat  similar  folds,  known  as 
the  false  vocal  chords.  Their  function  is  not  certainly  known. 
Between  the  true  and  false  vocal  chords,  are  two  lateral  depres- 
sions or  cavities  called  ventricles. 

8.  The  glottis  is  the  aperture,  or  opening,  between 
the  vocal  chords.  When  the  chords  are  at  rest  the  glot- 
tis has  somewhat  the  shape  of  a  key-hole;  when  they  are 
active,  as  in  vocalization,  the  opening  diminishes  to  a 
mere  line. 

Fig.  5.— VocaI/  Chords  and  Glottis. 


Section  ov  Laktkx:    1,  Trachea;  3,  The  true  vocal  chords;  3,  The 

false  vocal  chords;  4,  4,  The  glottis;  5,  5,  Ventricles. 
Glottis  :    2,  2,  Arytenoid  cartilages. 


PHOf^rOLOGY  AND   ORTHOEPY.  11 

9.  The  epiglottis  is  a  lid  or  valve  formed  to  sliiit 

down  over  the  glottis  in  the  act  of  swallowing.    Though 

en^^merated  with  the  cartilages  above,  it  is  in  part  of 

tendinous  tissue  and  may  be  called  fibro-cartilaginous. 

The  masticated  food  slides  over  the  upper  surface  of  the  epi- 
glottis into  the  oesophagus.  If,  by  reason  of  tardy  or  imperfect 
closure,  the  food  passes  into  the  larynx  instead,  a  convulsion 
follows;  and  we  saythatwehave  " swallowed  the  wrong  way." 

1 0.  The  pharynx  is  a  sort  of  chamber  between  the 
mouth  and  the  larynx.  It  may  be  compared  to  an  in- 
verted sack  with  several  openings  in  one  side.  It  opens 
downward  into  the  larynx  and  oesophagus;  forward,  into 
the  mouth,  the  nasal  passages,  and,  by  the  Eustachian 
tubes  into  the  drum  of  the  ear. 

The  pharynx,  with  the  mouth  and  other  cavities  of  the 
head,  performs  the  office  of  a  resonator  or  tone-magni- 
fier, giving  greater  power  and  richness  to  the  tones  of 
the  larynx. 

THE  PROCESS  OF  BREATHING. 

1 1 .  Inspiration,  or  inhalation,  is  the  process  of  tak- 
ing breath.  In  order  to  inhale,  the  cavity  of  the  chest 
is  enlarged,  thus  tending  to  create  a  vacuum  around  the 
pleura,  or  lung-case.  The  resistance  being  thus  removed, 
the  outside  air  falls  through  the  trachea  and  bronchi 
into  the  lung-cells,  thereby  causing  the  lungs  to  expand 
and  follow  up  the  walls  of  the  chest. 

This  enlargement  of  the  chest  is  produced  by  a  double 
agency:  (1)  The  diaphragm  is  depressed,  or  flattened, 
partly  by  contraction  of  its  radiating  fibers,  and  partly 
by  an  outward  movement  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen, 
to  which  its  outer  rim  is  attached,  thus  enlarging  the 
chest  downward.  (2)  The  ribs  are  moved  upward  and 
outward  by  the  contraction  of  the  intercostal  and  pec- 
toral muscles,  and  the  chest  is  thus  enlarged  upward. 


12  PHONOLOGY   AND   ORTHOJIPY. 

The  first-named  agency,  the  action  of  the  diaphragm,  is  the 
one  which  should  be  most  rehed  on  and  cultivated  for  all  vocal 
purposes,  and  those  of  general  health  as  well.  It  is  impossible 
to  over-estimate  the  value  of  a  full  and  proper  use  of  the  dia- 
phragm. Females  are  especially  prone,  through  improper  dress- 
ing or  other  bad  habits,  to  err  in  the  disuse  of  this  organ.  Feeble 
health  and  feeble  voices  are  but  the  natural  result. 

12,  Expiration^  or  exhalation,  is  tlie  opposite  of 
inspiration.  When  the  various  organs  have  completed 
the  movements  of  inspiration,  they  react  by  their  own 
elastic  force.  This  reaction  is  aided  by  that  of  other 
organs,  as  the  intestines,  that  have  been  crowded  upon, 
and  by  the  weight  of  the  ribs;  and  the  air  is  driven  or 
squeezed  out  of  the  lungs. 

THE  PROCESS  OF  VOCALIZATION. 

13.  In  ordinary  respiration  the  vocal  chords  lie  re- 
laxed and  flattened  against  the  walls  of  the  larynx;  and 
only  a  slight  rustling  sound,  if  any,  is  produced  by  the 
friction  of  the  air  breathed  out. 

Yocalization,  or  the  production  of  voice,  is  accom- 
plished in  the  following  manner:  By  the  contraction  of 
the  proper  muscles  in  the  larynx,  the  two  arytenoid  car- 
tilages, sitting  on  the  back  margin  of  the  cricoid,  are 
moved  towards  each  other,  thus  bringing  the  vocal  chords 
nearer  together  and  narrowing  the  glottis  to  a  mere 
chink.  At  the  same  time,  the  thyroid  cartilage  is  drawn 
downward  and  slightly  forward,  thereby  tightening  the 
chords.  The  outward  current  of  breath,  driven  against 
and  between  the  now  tense  folds  of  membrane,  sets  them 
into  a  more  or  less  rapid  vibration,  somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  the  reeds  in  an  accordion.  This  vibration  is 
communicated  to  the  confined  column  of  air,  as  by  the 
reed  of  a  clarionet;  and  the  air-waves,  thus  set  in  motion, 
are  strengthened  by  the  pharynx  and  ultimately  affect 
the  ear  of  the  hearer.  The  result  of  all  this  is  a  vocal 
tone  more  or  less  pure,  or  in  other  words,  voice. 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  13 

The  action  of  the  larynx  is  compared  to  that  of  a  reed  instru- 
ment. In  fact  it  combines  the  three  principles  on  which  all 
musical  instruments  are  constructed;  the  string,  the  reed,  and 
the  vibrating  column  of  air  as  in  the  flute. 

Y  THE  ORGANS  OF  SPEECH. 

14.  The  Organs  of  Speech  are  those  organs  which 
are  employed  in  modifying  the  hreath,  vocalized  or  un- 
vocalized,  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  thought. 

They  are  the  tongue,  lips,  palate,  teeth,  and  nasal 


By  various  combinations  with  each  other,  they  obstruct  the 
outward  movement  of  the  breath  from  the  pharynx,  and  so  give 
rise  to  a  great  variety  of  modifications  of  tne  natural  or  funda- 
mental tone  of  the  voice. 

In  whispering,  unvocalized  breath  is  modified  or  affected  by 
these  organs  to  suit  the  purposes  of  speech. 

15.  The  tongue  is  not  the  simple  paddle-shaped  or- 
gan which  it  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  from  observa- 
tion of  its  upper  surface,  but  rather  a  thick  cushion- 
shaped  mass  of  muscular  fibers  in  apparently  complete 
confusion,  but  really  so  disposed  as  to  be  capable  of  pro- 
ducing motion  in  any  and  every  direction  or  several 
directions  at  once. 

In  phonology  it  is  considered,  for  convenience  of  description, 
as  having  three  parts,  the  tip,  the  front  or  blade,  and  the  base. 

16.  The  palate  is  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  The  fixed 
front  portion  is  called  the  hard  palate.  Continuous  with 
it,  backward,  is  a  yielding  muscular  and  membranous 
awning,  separating  the  mouth  from  the  nasal  passages 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  pharynx.  This  is  the  soft 
palate.  Dependent  from  this  is  a  conical  appendage 
called  the  Uvula. 

The  soft  palate  is  capable  of  depression  and  other 
movements. 

17.  The  nasal  passages  admit  of  closure  at  their 
inner  extremities  by  the  action  of  the  soft  palate.    The 


u 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 


presence  or  absence  of  this  closure  is  very  essential  to 
the  production  of  certain  sounds. 

The  lips  and  teeth  need  no  description.  The  for^ 
mer  are  of  great  importance  in  articulation;  the  latter, 
of  but  little. 

Fig.  6.  —  Section  of  Head,  Showing  Tongue,  etc. 


6,  Tongue;  c,  Sectivon  of  palate;  d,  d.  Lips;  P,  Pharyn::;  S,  Epiglottis; 
w, Uvula;  V,  Glottis;  5,  Passage  into  oesophagus,  h,  Hyoid  bone; 
*,  Thyroid  cartilage. 


THE  PROCESS  OF  ARTICULATION. 

18.  The  distinctive  and  crowning  process  of  speech 
is  that  of  articulation,  a  process  as  complex  and  intri- 
cate as  it  is  essential. 

The  tongue,  by  its  power  of  manifold  motion, 
moves  forward  and  back,  narrows  and  widens,  arches 
and  flattens  in  its  several  parts;  the  lips  open  and  con- 
tract; the  palate  rises  and  lowers;  the  nasal  passages 
are  closed  and  unclosed;  the  teeth  approach  and  sepa- 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY,  15 

rate, —  all  these  movements  take  place  in  every  varying 
combination,  shaping  the  column  of  vibrating  breath; 
and  from  each  separate  combination  results  a  sound  of 
distinct  and  recognizable  quality,  capable  of  appropria- 
tion as  a  thought-symbol. 

The  subject  of  articulation  is  further  discussed  in  a  succeeding 
chapter. 

THE  ORGANS  OF  HEARING. 

1 9.  The  ear  is  not  an  organ  for  the  production  of 
voice,  but  its  receiving  instrument. 

Sound-waves  in  the  air,  or  other  medium,  are  focused 
by  the  external  ear  upon  the  tympanum,  a  cavity  cov- 
ered by  a  thin  membrane  similar  in  its  arrangement 
and  function  to  the  head  of  a  drum.  A  number  of 
small  bones  in  contact  with  the  inner  side  of  this  mem- 
brane transmit  the  vibrations  to  the  internal  ear, 
whence  the  auditory  nerves  communicate  with  the 
brain. 

20.  Summary.  The  diaphragm  and  other  muscles, 
by  their  alternate  movements,  operate  the  lungs.  The 
breath,  forced  from  the  lungs,  passes  through  the 
bronchi  and  trachea  into  the  larynx.  The  vocal 
chords,  when  tensely  drawn  across  the  cavity  of  the 
larynx,  set  the  column  of  breath  into  vibration.  This 
vibration,  increased  by  the  resonating  action  of  the 
pharynx  and  other  cavities,  is  communicated  to  the 
external  air,  and  at  length  falls  as  a  tone  upon  the  list- 
ening ear. 


16  PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 

CHAPTER  11. 

PHONOLOGY. 

21.  Phonology,  or  phonetics,  is  the  science  of  ar- 
ticulate sounds,  and  treats  of  their  physical  character 
and  formation. 

It  is  a  branch  of  the  science  of  acoustics. 

22.  Sound  is  the  effect  produced  upon  the  auditory 

nerve  by  vibrations  of  the  air  or    other  conducting 

media. 

Water  and  solid  substances,  as  wood,  or  metal,  are  good  con- 
ductors or  media  of  sound-waves;  but  usually,  if  not  always,  a 
greater  or  less  portion  of  air  enters  into  the  chain  of  communi- 
cation. 

23.  Sounds  are  classified  as  tones  and  noises. 

A  tone  is  a  sound  produced  by  regular,  or  periodical, 
vibrations  (5f  the  sounding  body.  It  admits  of  uniform 
continuation,  and  is  usually  agreeable  to  the  ear. 

A  noise,  is  a  sound  produced  by  irregular,  or  non- 
periodical,  vibrations  —  the  motions  of  the  sounding 
body  changing  irregularly. 

A  combination  or  co-incidence  of  discordant  tones,  as 

when  the  keys  of  a  piano  are  all  struck  at  once,  is  also 

a  noise. 

A  water-fall,  for  instance,  or. a  machine  in  motion, has  its  uni- 
form tone,  or  key-note,  usually,  however,  rendered  almost 
unnoticeable  by  the  multitude  of  discordant  noises  —  splash- 
ings,  thumpings,  etc.  —  which  accompany  and  overpower  it. 

24.  Toice  is  tone  produced  by  the  mutual  action  of 
tRe  larynx  and  the  breath  from  the  lungs. 

It  is,  perhaps,  possible,  though  exceedingly  uncommon  andrunnat- 
ural,  to  produce  voice  with  the  in-going  breath. 

The  pure,  unmixed,  unobstructed  product  of  the  larynx  is  the 
sound  heard  in  the  English  word  ah  when  clearly  uttered.    It 


PHONOLOGY  AKD  ORTHOEPY.  17 

is  the  same  in  all  persons  without  distinction  of  age,  sex,  or 
Jjce.  It  is  capable,  however,  of  extensive  variation  in  pitch, 
this  being  the  sole  modification  of  voice  which  the  unaided 
larynx  can  effect. 
The  volume,  or  quantity,  of  voice  depends  upon  the  amount 
and  the  rate  of  expulsion  of  the  out-going  breath.  It  is  con- 
trolled chiefly  by  the  diaphragm  and  tiie  abdominal  muscles. 

25.  Speech  is  either  voice  or  breath  modified,  by  ar- 
ticulation, for  the  purpose  of  expressing  thought. 

Singing  without  words,  the  wailing  of  an  infant,  etc.,  are  exam- 
ples of  voice  without  speech.  Ordinary  whispering  is  speech 
without  voice. 

Common  speech  employs  a  mixture  of  vocalized  and  unvocalized 
breath  duly  articulated,  a  combination  of  tones  and  noises. 

26.  An  oral  element,  or  elementary  sound,  is, 

strictly  speaking,  a  sound  of  human  speech  which  can- 
not be  analyzed,  or  separated  into  parts.  It  is  produced 
witli  a  single  and  fixed  position  of  the  organs  of  speech. 

In  common  speech,  however,  the  term  has  been  loosely  ap- 
pHed  also  to  certain  couplets  or  combinations  of  sounds,  as  the 
diphthongs.  This  leads  to  the  expression,  compound  element, 
a  contradiction  in  terms,  but  too  firmly  established  by  usage, 
perhaps,  to  be  abolished. 

27.  The  number  of  oral  elements,  including  com- 
pounds according  to  the  popular  usage  above  men- 
tioned, is  given  by  Webster's  Dictionary  as  forty-five. 
The  number  recognized  by  Worcester  is  practically  the 
same. 

Phonetists  have  not  been  able  to  come  to  any  agreement,  as 
yet,  in  regard  to  the  exact  number  of  distinct  and  true  ele- 
ments in  our  language. 

The  number  of  possible  speech  sounds  is  almost  infinite.  Alexan- 
der Ellis,  the  great  English  phonologist,  has  invented  a  notation 
for  about  400  of  them,  which  he  calls  the  Palseotype. 

28.  Classification.  The  oral  elements  admit  of 
classification  in  several  different  ways  or  modes,  varying 
according  to  the  basis  of  classification  employed. 

The  most  familiar  classification  is  that  into  vocals, 
sub-vocals,  and  aspirates. 
A  vocal,  or  YOwel-sound,  is  a  tone  of  the  voice  but 
2 


18  PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 

little  or  not  at  all  modified,  or  interrupted,  by  the  or- 
gans of  speech. 

A  sub-vocal  is  a  tone  of  the  voice  greatly  modified, 
or  interrupted,  by  the  organs  of  speech. 

An  aspirate  is  a  mere  breathing  more  or  less  modi- 
fied by  the  organs  of  speech. 

Vocals,  sub-vocals,  and   aspirates,  are  also  called,  with  great 
propriety,  tonics,  sub-tonics  and  atonies. 
/'  Vocals,  or  tonics,  are  vocal  tones  nearly  pure,  i.e.,  but  little  mixed 

J  .  with  mere  noise.    Sub-vocals,  or  sub-tonics,  are  impure  tones, 

or  tones  so  greatly  mixed  with  noise,  the  rustling  of  breath 
against  the  organs,  etc.,  that  the  noise  predominates  over  the 
tone  more  or  less.  The  tone  is  covered  by  the  noise  and  be- 
comes undertone.^ 
Aspirates,  or  atonies,  contain  no  vocal  tone,  being  produced 
with  the  vocal  chords  in  a  state  of  inaction. 

*'  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  this  classification  is  based 

fp^      upon  the  amount  o£   vocal  tone  —  much,    little,  or 
none  —  which  the  sound  contains. 

2  9.  A  YOwel  is  a  letter  used  ordinarily .  to  represent 
V  a  vocal,  or  tonic,  sound. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  used  ordinarily  to  represent 
a  sub-vocal  or  an  aspirate  sound. 

Loose  popular  usage,  it  is  true,  employs  the  term  vowel  to  de- 
i  note  a  vocal,  or  tonic,  sound;  but  it  is  needful  for  scientific  pur- 

poses to  restrict  the  meaning  of  the  word. 

Nothing  can  be  phonetically  more  absurd  than  the  ancient  and 
still  common  definition  of  a  consonant,  as  "  a  sound  which  can- 
not be  uttered  without  the  aid  of  a  vowel.  ^'  There  is  no  sound 
in  our  language  which  cannot  be  uttered  independently  and 
alone.  Nor  is  the  later  one,  **  a  sound  which  cannot  be  uttered 
without  bringing  the  organs  into  contact,"  much  better.  It 
is  true  of  only  a  part,  at  most,  of  the  consonant  sounds.  And  it 
is  always  better  to  confine  the  word  consonant,  as  a  noun,  to  the 
indication  of  a  class  of  letters. 

The  English  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  m,  and  sometimes  y.  A  more 
scientific  statement  would  add  to  y  also,  I,  n,  and  r.  W  is  never 
a  vowel. 

30.  Cognates  (cog^  with;  natus^  born)  are  those  pairs 

of  consonant  sounds,  one  sub-vocal  and  one  aspirate, 

which  are  produced  with  the  organs  of  speech  in  the 


PHONOLOGY  AND  OKTHOEFY.  19 

same,  or  very  nearly  the  same,  position  for  both,  as  h  and 
p,  V  and  /. 

A  table  showing  all  the  cognates  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on 
Orthoepy. 

31.  A  diphthong  (di^  double;  pJithongos,  voice)  is  a 
combination  of  two  vocals,  or  vowel-sounds,  in  one  utter- 
ance or  syllable.  It  may  be  represented  to  the  eye  by 
two  letters  or  one. 

The  essential  characteristic  and  test  of  a  diphthong  is  that  it 

requires  a  change  in  the  position  of  the  organs  of  speech  durmg 

the  continuance  of  a  tone. 
There  are  six  diphthongs  in  the  English  language,  as  heard 

in  the  words  out,  oil,  ice,  %ise,  oh,  ate. 
The  old  distinction  of  "proper"  and  "improper'^  diphthongs, 

is  essentially  absurd  and  mischievous;  and  there  is  no  such  thing 

in  the  English  language  as  a  "triphthong." 

32.  A  digraph  is  a  combination  of  two  letters  to 
represent  one  sound. 

These  letters  may  be  vowels  or  consonants;  hence  we  may 
have  vowel  digraphs,  as  ai  in  said,  or  consonant  digraphs,  as 
j)h  in  phiz. 

A  trigraph  is  a  combination  of  three  letters  to  repre- 
sent one  sound  or  a  diphthong,  as  sch  in  schist^  eau  in 
heau. 

The  terms  digraph  and  trigraph,  like  vowel  and  consonant, 
might  be  considered  as  belonging  to  Orthography,  but  they  are 
also  necessary  here. 

33.  Another  classification  of  the  oral  elements 
is  that  based  upon  the  hind  of  modification  which  the 
sounds  receive,  that  is,  upon  the  special  organs  of  speech 
used  in  forming  them. 

The  several  classes  take  their  names  from  the  organ  most  promi- 
nently in  use. 
A  labial  is  a  speech-sound  modified  chiefly  by  the 
lips,  as  the  sounds  of  o,  6,  and^. 

A  palatal  is  a  sound  modified  chiefly  by  the  palate, 
as  the  sounds  of  e,  ^,  and  k. 


20  PHONOLOGY  AND  OKTHOEPY. 

A  lingual  is  a  sound  modified  chiefly  by  the  tongue, 
as  the  sounds  of  Z,  d^  and  t. 

The  lips,  being  two  and  external,  are  more  independent  than 
other  organs  in  their  action.  The  tongue  and  palate  assist 
each  other,  the  sound  being  named,  or  classed,  according  to  the 
greater  prominence  of  either  organ  in  the  work  of  modification. 

The  teeth  also  assist  in  the  formation  of  certain  sounds,  which 
may  therefore  be  called  labio-dentals,  linguo-dentals,  etc. 

Sounds  which  owe  their  peculiar  quaUty  in  part  to  an  open- 
ness of  the  nasal  passages,  are  called  nasals,  as  the  soun(fe  of 
m  and  n. 

34.  Long  and  sliort  are  terms  which  apply  only  to 
vocals.  Vowel  sounds  differ  from  sub-vocals  in  that 
they  are  less  interrupted  by  the  organs  of  speech.  They 
differ  from  each  other  in  quantity  or  duration,  and  in 
quality.  With  reference  to  quantity,  they  are  classified 
as  long  and  short. 

Long  vowel  sounds  are  those  which  may  be,  and  usu- 
ally are,  prolonged  in  their  utterance,  as  a  in  pay^  oo  in 
woo^  etc. 

Sliort  vowel  sounds  are  those  which,  in  ordinary 

speech,  do  not  admit  of  prolongation,  as  i  in  fit^  o  in 

not^  etc. 

Tliey  are  in  the  English  language  peculiarly  abrupt  or  "ex- 
plosive "  in  their  utterance.  The  prolonging  of  a  short  sound 
results  in  "drawling.*' 

35,  Each  vowel  has  a  "  regular  "  long  and  short  sound 
which  it  in  most  cases  represents,  and  one  or  more  "  oc- 
casional" or  irregular  sounds.  The  regular  long  and 
short  sounds  of  a  given  vowel,  in  English,  are  not  neces- 
sarily, nor  even  usually,  the  natural  correlatives  of  each 
other. 


a, 
a, 
a, 


Long  Sounds. 

Short  Sounds. 

as  in  -       -     fame. 

a,  as  in  -       -     fat. 

''          -         father. 

a,     "         -         a^k. 

"     -        -     fall. 

e,      "     -        -     met. 

"          -         fare. 

i,      "         -         pit. 

"     -       .     mete. 

0,     "     -       -     coffee. 

PHONOLOGY  AKD  OETHOEPY.  21 


Long  Sounds. 

Short  Sounds. 

e,  as  in       -        verse. 

00,  as  in     -         foot. 

i,     ''     -        -    mine. 

w,     "    -        -    up. 

0,     "          -        tone. 

00,    "     -        -    boot. 

w,    "          -        tune. 

w,     "     -        -    urge. 

OM,  "          -        sour. 

oi,    "     -       -    oil. 

COREELATIVE  LONG  , 

AND  Short  Sounds. 

Long. 

Short. 

a    in  care    -        -        - 

e    in  met. 

a   in  father     - 

-   a   in  ask. 

a    in  fall     -        -        - 

0    in  coffee,  on. 

e    in  mete 

-   i    in  mit. 

00  in  boot  -        -        - 

00  in  foot. 

11   in  urge 

-    w   in  up. 

The  sounds  of  a  in  fat,  e  in  versCj  and  the  six  diphthongs, 
have  no  English  correlatives. 

36.  Quality,  Yowel  sounds  differ  in  quality  accord- 
ing to  the  different  positions  of  the  organs  during  their 
utterance,  every  new  adjustment  of  the  organs  produc- 
ing a  distinct  effect  upon  the  ear. 

The  various  terms,  as  fiat,  grave,  hroad,  oUuse,  etc.,  which 
have  been  used  to  indicate  quality  of  sounds,  are  rather  mis- 
leading than  useful. 

The  study  and  discrimination  of  the  nicer  and  more  difficult 
shades  of  sound,  and  of  the  configurations  by  which  they  are 
produced,  is  a  matter  of  much  importance  to  scientific  students 
of  language. 

37.  Semi-TOwels  are  those  sounds  which,  in  their 
degree  of  modification,  stand  on  the  border  line  between 
vocals  and  sub-vocals,  and  are  thus  capable  of  use  in 
either  class.  They  are  the  sounds  of  w,  y,  Z,  w,  and  r, 
and  perhaps  even  that  of  m.    See  section  60. 

The  term  "semi-vowel"  is  not  extremely  accurate; 
but  for  the  want  of  a  better  is  used  here,  and  is  likely 


22  PHONOLOGY  AND  OETHOEPY. 

to  continue  in  use,  with,  a  more  scientific  application 
than  formerly. 

38.  For  purposes  of  description  all  the  classifications 

outlined  in  the  preceding  section  are  useful.     Other 

classifications  according  to  physiological  character  have 

been  made,  but  that  of  Prof.  W.  D.  Whitney —  adapted, 

in  this  work,  to  the  notation  of  Webster's  Dictionary  — 

will  be  chiefly  adhered  to,  as  on  the  whole  the  simplest 

and  most  satisfactory  for  practical  purposes. 

The  following  diagram  presents  this  classification  to  the  eye 
at  a  single  view: 

39.  Diagram  of  the  oral  elements. 

(Classljied  according  to  Mode  of  Formation.) 

a 


a 

\J      /'.       v/ 

a/\  0 

^  5. 

gJi-^ 

w 

J^"  ••"•—— 

■---_   _ii5g--- 

wh 

h      zh 

Z& 

n^    sh 

m 

k      eh 

th    t                    f 

p 

The  above  diagram  is,  in  the  main,  self-explanatory  to  one 
acquainted  with  Webster's  notation. 

Starting  with  the  pure,  open  tone  ah^  the  sounds  in  each  series 
are  arranged  in  the  order  of  openness,  downward  direction 
indicating  increase  of  closure.  _  Diphthongs  are  represented 
upon  curved  lines  connecting  their  component  elemente. 

Consonant  sounds  not  belonging  fully  to  any  one  of  the  three 
series,  are  placed  beside  that  to  which  they  are  the  most  closely 
related. 

If  the  student  will  produce,  successively,  all  the  sounds  of 
each  series  in  the  downward  order,  he  cannot  fail  to  observe  the 
gradual  and  uninterrupted  closm-e  of  the  organs  concerned. 


PHONOLOGY  AND  OETHOEPY.  23 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  SOUNDS. 

A  brief  description  of  each  of  the  sounds  recognized  by  the  Eng- 
lish dictionaries  is  here  given  as  possibly  the  most  practical  and 
serviceable  part  of  this  treatise.  It  is  thought  best  to  take  them 
up  in  the  order  in  which  they  naturally  occur  in  the  several 
series  as  exhibited  in  the  preceding  diagram  (Sec.  39). 

THE  VOWEL  SOUNDS. 

40.  A  as  in  ah,  far.  Italian  a.  This  is  the  fundar 
mental  tone  of  the  human  voice,  the  pure  product  of  the 
vocal  organs.  Its  proper  production  requires  an  ex- 
treme openness  of  the  organs  of  speech,  allowing  the 
column  of  fully  vocalized  breath  to  pass  without  obstruc- 
tion at  any  point.  All  other  vocals,  and  the  sub-vocals, 
may  be  considered  as  simply  modifications  of  this  tone. 

This  noblest  of  sounds  has  become,  unhappily,  too  rare  in  our  lan- 
guage, constituting  at  present  less  than  one-half  of  one  per 
cent,  of  our  whole  utterance,  as  against  five  per  cent,  in  the 
German  and  thirty  per  cent,  in  the  ancient  Sanscrit. 

41.  A  as  in  ask.  Short  Italian  a  of  Webster — 
Intermediate  a  of  Worcester.  This  sound  differs  from 
the  preceding  one  in  quantity,  being  "  short "  or  explo- 
sive. When  perfectly  produced,  it  requires  the  same 
extreme  openness  of  the  organs  as  the  full  Italian  a; 
but  it  is  liable,  even  in  the  mouths  of  good  speakers,  to  a 
slight  modification  by  closure.  In  instruction,  however, 
the  full  openness  should  be  insisted  upon. 

Uneducated  speakers  often  use,  in  place  of  this  elegant  sound,  in 
words  like  dance,  grass,  etc.,  a  corruption  or  drawling  of  the 
short  a,  a  coarse  and  most  disagreeable  eiTor. 

LABIALS. 

42.  0  as  in  on,  coffee.  A  as  in  what.  Short  o, 
(short  broad  a).  This  sound  so  closely  resembles  the 
short  Italian  a,  as  to  be  very  often  confounded  with  it. 
Its  proper  utterance  requires  that  the  column  of  vocal- 


24  PHONOLOGY  AlTD  ORTHOEPY. 

ized  breath  should  be  slightly  obstructed  by  contraction 

of  the  lips,  drawing  the  corners  of  the  mouth  slightly 

towards  each  other.    The  sound  closely  resembles  that 

of  a  in  fall^  but  is  short,  or  explosive,  admitting  of 

no  prolongation. 

Much  care  should  be  taken  with  this  sound;  for,  while  it  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  language,  it  is  probably  the  most 
abused  —  the  pronunciation  of  such  words  as  not,  what,  on,  hogj 
fog,  tcatch,  etc.,  with  the  sound  of  Italian  a,  more  or  less  short- 
ened, bein^  the  invariable  custom  of  the  majority  of  people  in 
some  localities,  especially  in  the  Northwestern  States.  This  is  a 
provincialism  which  deserves  no  toleration. 

43.  A  as  in  awe.  0  as  in  or.  Broad  a.  Broad 
a  resembles  Italian  a  in  quantity,  being  long;  but  it  is 
modified  by  a  contraction  and  consequent  projection  of 
the  lips,  which  lengthens  the  cavity  of  resonance. 

The  position  of  the  lips  is  a  trifle  closer  than  that  for 
sJiort  0,  from  which  sound  this  differs  but  slightly,  ex- 
cept in  duration. 


A  few  words  like  cross,  cost,  salt,  are  often  pronounced  with  a 
quantity  intermediate  between  the  regular  short  o  SLudbroad  a. 
This  distinction  need  not  be  insisted  upon,  however. 


44.  0  as  in  ho.  Long  o.  This  sound  is  a  labial 
diphthong.  It  begins  with  a  position  of  the  lips  some- 
what closer  than  that  for  broad  a,  which  position  is  still 
further  closed  during  the  continuance  of  the  tone, 
which  vanishes  in  the  sound  of  oo  as  in  coo. 

In  unaccented  syllables  ending  in  o,  and  in  a  few  words  like 
wholly,  the  vanish  is  omitted,  and  only  the  radical  or  brief 
initial  sound  remains. 

45.  00  as  in  foot.    0  as  in  wolf.    U  as  in  put. 

Short  00 — (u  medial).  A  still  closer  lip  position  than 
the  one  for  beginning  long  o,  with  an  explosive  emission 
of  voice,  gives  the  short  vocal  known  as  short  oo^  heard 
in  foot^  push. 

46.  00  as  in  boot.  0  as  in  do.  Uasinrnde.  Long 
00  —  (slender  o).    A  prolongation  of  the  vocal  tone 


PHONOLOGY  AND  OKTHOEFY.  25 

with,  a  slightly  closer  position  than  for  the  preceding 
sound  (short  ooX  yields  the  sound  heard  in  coo^  do.  It 
is  the  closest  of  the  labial  vocals,  the  next  stage  of  lip- 
closure  resulting  in  the  sound  of  w. 

This  sound  is  often  indolently  contracted  into  the  short  oo  in  such 
words  as  hroom,  room,  soon,  and  even  food.  To  pronounce 
these  with  the  sound  of  oo  in  foot  is  grossly  neghgent,  though 
only  too  common. 

47.  Ou  as  in  sound.  Ow  as  in  cow.  If  the  lips 
change  from  extreme  openness,  as  in  ah^  to  the  extreme 
closeness  of  oo  while  the  vocal  tone  continues,  the  re- 
sult will  be  the  labial  dipthong,  ow,  which,  therefore, 
may  be  considered  as  the  sum  of  the  whole  series  just 
discussed.    Its  analysis  is  ow= a +  (55. 

A  caution  is  here  necessary.  Many  speakers  begin  this  diph- 
thong with  the  sound  of  short  a,  as  caou  for  cow.  This  vulgar 
error  is  usually  thought  to  be  a  pecuharity  of  ilUterate 
**  Yankees,'*  but  it  is  by  no  means  limited  to  New  England. 

PALATALS. 

This  series  of  sounds  might  with  greater  accuracy  be  termed 
Linguo- Palatals,  since  the  part  played  by  the  tongue  is  so  great; 
but  the  simpler  term  has  the  sanction  of  high  authority,  at  least. 

48.  A  as  in  at.  Short  a.  This  simple  and  familiar 
sound  differs  but  little  in  position  from  the  short  Italian 
o,  though  quite  distinct  to  the  ear.  A  slightly  differ- 
ent adjustment  of  the  soft  palate  from  that  for  ah,  and 
a  slight  lifting  of  the  blade  of  the  tongue,  constitute  its 
peculiarity.  * 

Like  other  short  sounds  it  should  receive  a  neat  and  elegant  utter- 
ance, any  prolongation  of  it  destroymg  its  true  character. 

49.  E  as  in  met.    Short  e.   A  still  closer  approach 

of  tongue  and  palate  than  that  required  for  short  a,  is 

necessary  for  the  production  of  short  e,  the  tongue  being 

thrust  well  forward,  and  its  middle  portion  considerably 

arched. 
The  only  caution  needful  is  that  against  prolongation  in  speaking. 
It  may  be  prolonged  in  singing,  however. 


26  PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 

50.  A  as  in  care.  E  as  in  there.  Circumflex  a, 
(Worcester's  a  long  before  r).  This  sound  has  been 
thought  by  some  to  be  identical  with  the  preceding  one, 
short  e.  It  differs  from  it,  when  correctly  uttered,  in 
being  somewhat  closer  and  in  admitting  of  moderate 
prolongation.  It  occurs,  in  accented  syllables,  only  be- 
fore the  sound  of  r,  and  has  by  some  been  erroneously 
regarded  as  a  diphthong,  owing  to  the  semi-vowel  char- 
acter of  the  r  itself.  It  is  a  simple  element,  and  consti- 
tutes the  radical,  or  initial,  part  of  the  diphthong,  long 
a,  heard  in  jpay. 

The  majority  of  American  speakers — in  the  interior,  at  least — 
give  in  place  of  this  sound  one  of  somewhat  different  character. 
It  may  be  described  as  short  a  drawled  or  prolonged.  Thia 
practice  receives  a  sort  of  left-handed  sanction  from  Webster, 
"  provided  it  be  given  without  undue  coarseness  or  breadth;  " 
but  it  is  usually  avoided  by  cultivated  speakers.  There  is  some- 
thing to  be  said  in  its  favor  scientifically,  however,  as  furnishing 
the  correlative  long  sound,  otherwise  missing,  of  short  a.  With 
this  utterance,  it  should  be  placed  above  short  e  in  the  scale 
(Sec.  39). 

51.  A  as  in  pay.  E  as  in  prey.  Long  a.  Long 
a  is  a  linguo-palatal  diphthong.  It  begins  with  the 
preceding  sound  in  the  series,  a  as  in  care^  and  closes 
with  the  sound  of  e  in  me.  This  involves  a  considerable 
closure  of  the  palate  and  tongue  during  the  utterance  of 
the  sound. 

In  the  utterance  of  a  in  care,  the  tongue  is  inimediately  drawn 
back  and  narrowed  to  form  the  palatal  r;  but  in  forming  long  a 
the  tongue  is  pressed  still  further  forward,  and  is  crowded 
against  the  upper  teeth  to  form  the  vanishing  element. 

In  unaccented  syllables,  the  vanish  is  sometimes  omitted. 

52.  I  as  in  it.  Y  as  in  abyss.  Short  i.  This 
sound  most  resembles  that  of  e  in  me.  It  is  slightly 
more  open  in  its  formation,  being,  in  closeness,  midway 
between  the  radical  and  the  vanishing  parts  of  long  a. 
It  is  a  true  abrupt  or  short  sound;  and  even  when  pro- 
longed, it  is  still  distinct  from  long  e. 


PHONOLOGY  AND  OETHOEPT.  27 

53.  E  as  in  me.  I  as  in  pique.  Long  e.  This  is 
the  closest  of  the  palatal  vocals,  the  next  stage  of  pala- 
tal closure  yielding  the  semi-vowel  y^  as  in  yet  For  the 
formation  of  long  e,  the  edges  of  the  tongue  are  pressed 
against  the  teeth,  while  its  middle  portion  is  almost  in 
contact  with  the  palate  throughout  its  whole  length, 
thus  leaving  a  very  thin  passage  for  the  breath. 

54.  I  as  in  ice.    Y  as  in  my.    Long  i.    This  is  a 

palatal  diphthong.    For  its  production,  the  tongue  and 

palate  are  placed  in  the  extreme  open  position  of  Italian 

a  and  closed,  during  vocalization,  to  the  extreme  close 

position  of  long  e.    Thus,  like  ow,  it  is  the  sum  of  a  series 

of  sounds.    Its  analysis  is  usually  given  as  l=d  +  e, 

which  is  practically  correct. 

A  common  fault  in  its  utterance  consists  in  not  commencing  with 
a  sufficiently  open  position  of  the  mouth. 

MIXED  DIPHTHONGS. 

Ou  and  long  o  are  labial  diphthongs;  long  i  and  long  a  are  palatal 
diphthongs.  Two  others  combine  the  action  of  all  the  organs 
in  such  a  way  as  to  entitle  them  to  the  name,  mixed  diphthongs. 

55.  U  as  in  use,  tune.  Ew  as  in  new.  Long  u. 
The  diphthong  long  u  presents  two  distinct  phases  to 
the  ear,  as  heard  in  the  words  use  and  tune.  If  the 
palate  and  tongue  be  placed  in  the  close  and  tense  posi- 
tion required  for  the  sound  of  y  in  yet^  and  then  opened 
while  the  lips  close  to  the  position  of  oo  in  woo^  the  re- 
sulting voice-sound  will  be  that  of  long  u  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  syllable,  as  in  union^  use^  etc.  In  any  other 
place  than  the  beginning  of  a  syllable,  however,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  perfectly  form  the  y  sound;  hence 
a  more  open  position  is  substituted,  that  of  short  i^  as 
in  it;  and  the  u  becomes  a  combination  of  short  i  and 
long  00^  the  i  accented,  but  very  quickly  uttered.  But 
for  this  change  from  y  to  short  t,  the  words  tune  and 
duke  would  become,  in  most  mouths,  choon  and  jook. 


28  PHONOLOGY  AKD  OETHOEPY. 

Long  u  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  trying  sounds 
of  our  language.    Its  analysis  may  be  represented  thus, 


in 


+  (5C). 


5  6.  Oi  as  in  oil.  Oy  as  in  boy.  Its  position  is  that 
for  broad  a,  awe,  changing  to  that  of  the  close  palatal, 
short  i;  oi  =  t  +  i. 

LmGUALS. 

The  Unguals  differ  from  the  palatals  in  the  relative  prominence  of 
the  tongue  as  a  modifying  instrument.  This  is  more  j)lainly 
seen  in  the  consonant  than  in  the  vowel  sounds  of  the  series. 

57.  U  as  in  np.  0  as  in  son.  Short  u.  This  is  an 
open  sound,  being  like  short  a  and  short  o  but  one  remove 
from  Italian  a,  though  in  a  different  direction.  The 
slight  closure  necessary  to  transform  short  Italian  a  into 
short  Uj  is  effected  by  a  slight  elevation  of  the  base  of 
the  tongue. 

The  sound  is  one  of  easy  utterance,  requiring  little  muscular  effort, 
and  therefore  liable  to  intrude  itself  into  many  places  where  it 
does  not  belong,  to  the  exclusion  of  more  elegant  sounds  — 
especially  in  unaccented  syllables.  The  excessive  use  of  it  is  a 
mark  of  laziness  and  barbarous  neghgence  in  speech. 

58.  U  in  urge.  0  in  word.  Circumflex  u.  A 
slightly  greater  elevation  of  the  back  part  of  the  tongue 
toward  the  soft  palate  than  that  for  short  w,  with  pro- 
longation of  the  tone,  gives  the  sound  of  u  heard  before 
r  final  or  r  followed  by  another  consonant.  It  is  a  com- 
paratively open  sound,  and  easy  of  utterance,  differing 
from  short  w,  to  the  ear,  chiefly  in  its  greater  duration. 

59.  E  as  in  yerse.  I  as  in  girl.  Tilde  e.  This 
is  a  close  lingual  sound,  the  tongue  being  well  raised  in 
all  its  forward  part,  while  the  teeth  are  brought  nearer 
together  than  for  the  preceding  sound  (u  in  urge).  It 
has  been  described  as  an  intermediate  between  short  e  as 
merry,  and  the  u  in  urge:  though  it  is  commonly  con- 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  29 

fused  by  great  numbers  of  the  people  with  the  latter 
sound.  The  distinction  between  the  two  is  insisted  upon 
by  such  authorities  as  Webster  and  Smart. 

The  direction  to  be  given  to  students  is:  Keep  a 
close  position  of  all  the  organs  and  form  the  sound  well 
forward  in  the  mouth.  The  u  sound  can  be  made  with 
an  open  mouth,  this  cannot. 

This  seems  to  be  identical  with  the  German  umlaut  o,  as  in  Goethe. 
It  is  also  quite  similar  to  our  lingual  r,  which  accounts  for  a 
part  of  our  difficulty  with  it,  and  for  the  fact  that  the  word  Goethe 
is  so  often  sunk  into  '*  Gerty  ''  in  pronunciation. 

In  trying  to  escape  confounding  this  sound  with  u  in  urge,  we  are 
in  danger,  also,  of  going  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  making  it 
too  closely  resemble  short  e, 

SEMI-VOWELS. 

60,  As  the  difference  between  vocals  and  sub-vocals 
is  only  a  difference  in  degree  of  modification  or  obstruc- 
tion by  the  organs  of  speech,  it  is  but  natural  that  there 
should  be  a  stage  of  uncertainty,  a  sort  of  border-land, 
between  them.  Hence  some  writers,  with  much  reason, 
recognize  those  sounds  which  lie  along  this  border-line 
as  a  separate  class,  under  the  name  of  semi-vowels. 

61,  W.  The  labial  semi-vowel  is  represented  in 
English  by  the  letter  w.  It  is  formed  by  a  lip-closure 
so  extreme  as  to  lessen  the  purity  of  the  tone  consider- 
ably below  that  of  long  oo,  though  not  so  far  as  to  pre- 
vent prolongation  of  the  sound. 

62.  Y.    The  palatal  semi-vowel  is  the  sound  ofyia 

yet,  which  bears  the  same  close  relation  to  long  e  that  w 

does  to  long  oo.    The  position  of  the  organs  is  similar  tv, 

that  for  long  e,  but  one  degree  closer,  reducing  the  tone 

to  a  mere  buzz  or  hum. 

The  tongue  is  sHghtly  drawn  back  from  the  e  position,  and  the 
pressure  against  the  teeth  is  increased. 

63.  B.  Closely  related  to  the  sound  of  e  in  her  (tilde 
e),  are  the  two  sounds  of  r.    The  lingual  r,  heard 


30  PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 

at    the    beginning  —  or    anywhere  before   the   vowel 

sound  —  of  a  syllable,  is  formed  by  placing  the  tongue 

well  forward  and  turned  upward  so  that  the  breath  is 

passed  over  its  extreme  tip,  producing  a  very  slight  trill 

or  vibration.     The  position  differs  from  that  of  tilde  e 

in  the  turning  up  of  the  tip  of  the  tongue. 

The  palatal  or  uvular  r,  heard  at  the  end  of  a  syllable, 

or  whenever  not  immediately  followed  by  a  vowel,  as  in 

far^farm^  can  be  produced  without  the  aid  of  the  tip  of 

the  tongue,  being  formed  farther  back  in  the  mouth. 

This  is  clearly  a  different  sound  from  the  lingual  r,  but  the  two 
are  not  discriminated  by  some  ears.  The  common  and  disa- 
greeable error  of  failing  to  sound  the  palatal  r —  ^vingfahmah 
for  farmer,  etc.,  is  usually  taken  as  an  evidence  of  affectation. 
It  is  often,  however,  a  matter  of  innocent,  ignorant  habit  rather 
than  affectation. 

64,  L.  The  sound  of  I  is  of  about  the  same  closeness 
as  the  lingual  r,  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  however,  being 
placed  against  the  upper  teeth  or  the  roof  of  the  mouth, 
and  the  breath  allowed  to  escape  over  the  edges  of  the 
tongue. 

It  is  the  semi-vowel  diaracter  of  I  which  allows  it  to  become  the 
vocal  basis  of  a  syllable,  as  in  able,  shovel,  etc.,  in  which  the  e 
is  entirely  mute,  and  yet  the  words  are  dissyllables. 

The  substitution  of  I  for  r  by  Chinamen  is  doubtless  a  consequence 
of  the  similarity  of  the  two  in  degree  of  interruption. 

65.  N.  The  nasal  sound  of  w,  in  nail^  has  the  same 
peculiarity  as  the  foregoing,  often  constituting  a  syllable 
of  itself,  as  in  heaven^  cotton^  where  the  preceding  vowel 
is  silent.  • 

In  the  production  of  this  sound,  the  tongue  is  placed 
against  the  hard  palate  in  such  a  way  as  to  wholly 
obstruct  the  oral  passage,  the  breath  escaping  through 
the  nasal  passages  instead. 

( Labial,  TT. 
Semi-Vowels.  •]  Palatal,  7. 

(  Lingual,  i?,  LyN, 


PHONOLOGY   AND  ORTHOEPY.  31 

OTHER  SUB-YOCALS. 

66.  As  already  defined,  sub-vocals  are  tones  pro- 
duced in  the  larynx,  but  greatly  modified  in  the  mouth. 
They  are  thus  impure  tones,  or,  as  the  name  implies,  un- 
dertones. Vocals  are  also  subject  to  obstruction,  as  we 
have  seen,  but  not  to  the  same  degree. 

The  obstruction  of  the  breath  gives  rise  to  friction  and  a  mingling 
of  mere  noise  with  the  tone.  When  this  admixture  of  noise 
reaches  such  a  degree  as  to  predominate  over  and  partially  ob- 
scure the  tone,  the  sound  is  called  sufe-vocal. 

LABIALS. 

67.  y.  If  the  edges  of  the  upper  teeth  be  placed 
upon  the  lower  lip,  and  the  vocalized  breath  forced  be- 
tween the  teeth,  the  sound  of  the  letter  v  will  be  pro- 
duced. This  sound  would  be  more  correctly  named 
labio-dental. 

68.  M.  Let  the  lips  be  closed  entirely  and  the  vocal- 
ized breath  be  allowed  to  pass  only  through  the  nose. 
The  resulting  sound  is  that  of  m.  It  differs  from  that 
of  n  only  in  its  initial  quality  and  not  in  its  continua- 
tion. 

This  sound  is  sometimes  ranked  among  the  semi- vowels,  since  it 
is  possible  for  it  to  serve  as  the  vowel  element  of  a  syllable,  as  in 
the  common  contraction  yes'm,  and  the  ejaculation  m'h'm. 
These  are  hardly  legitimate  words,  however. 

69.  B.  If,  now,  the  nasal  passages  be  covered  by  the 
soft  palate,  while  the  action  of  the  larynx  continues,  we 
have  the  sound  of  the  letter  5,  a  sound  requiring  com- 
plete contact  of  the  organs  and,  so,  not  capable  of  pro- 
longation. 

The  common  error  in  its  separate  production  consists  in  allowing 
the  lips  to  part,  thus  producing  not  the  sound  of  b  alone,  but  in 
connection  with  a  neutral  vowel  —  a  combination  best  repre- 
sented by  the  syllable  buh. 


32  PHONOLOGY  AND  OETHOEPY. 

PALATALS. 

70.  Zli.  The  sound  usually  represented  by  z  before 
long  w,  as  in  azure^  or  by  2;  or  s  before  t,  as  in  osier^  is 
produced  with  the  blade  of  the  tongue  in  close  proximity 
to  the  hard  palate  and  the  teeth  shut,  or  nearly  so. 

It  is  a  simple  element,  produced  without  change  of 

position,  though  tongue,  teeth  and  palate  conjoin  in  its 

formation.    It  is  thus  not  a  pure  but  a  mixed  palatal. 

This  sound  has  been  treated  as  a  compound  of  z^  and  y,  but 
the  fact  seems  to  be  that  the  utterance  of  z  and  1/  in  succession 
is  impossible  without  a  hiatus,  and  this  element,  somewhat  sim- 
ilar to  them  both,  is  substituted  for  them.  Though  known  as 
the  soand  of  zh,  it  is  never  represented  by  that  combination  of 
letters,  which,  indeed,  does  not  occur  in  tlie  EnffHsh  language. 
The  sound  might,  with  more  propriety,  be  called  the  second 
sound  of  z. 

71.  J.  The  sound  of  j  is  also  a  mixed  palatal.  It 
has  generally  been  considered  a  compound  of  the  sound 
of  d  and  the  one  just  discussed,  zh.  It  is  undoubtedly 
a  compound,  a  sub-vocal  diphthong,  so  to  speak;  but 
the  analysis  mentioned,  d+zh^  is  of  doubtful  accuracy. 
D+y  would  seem  to  be  nearer  the  truth;  but  the  sec- 
ond element  is,  in  all  probability,  a  sound  which  does 
not  occur  separately  in  our  language.  The  sound  of  j 
differs  from  that  of  zh  in  the  still  greater  elevation  of 
the  tongue,  forming  a  temporary  contact  with  the  hard 
palate,  which  is  then  suddenly  broken,  the  closed  teeth 
parting  at  the  same  instant  and  allowing  the  breath  to 
escape  forcibly. 

Wheny  is  uttered  without  a  vowel  immediately  ensuing,  it  is  in- 
evitably followed,  or  closed,  by  the  sound  of  its  aspirate  cognate, 
ch. 

72.  Ng,  N.  The  second  or  palatal  sound  of  w,  usu- 
ally called  ng,  is  produced  by  bringing  the  soft  palate 
and  the  back  part  of  the  tongue  into  complete  contact, 
compelling  the  breath  to  escape  through  the  nose,  as  in 
m  and  n. 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  33 

From  being  produced  so  far  back,  it  is  often  called  a  guttural,  or 
throat  sound.  It  is  very  often  displaced  by  the  first  or  common 
sound  of  n  m  the  mouths  of  indolent  or  negligent  speakers. 
1  hough  often  represented  by  the  digraph  ng,  it  is  frequently 
represented  by  n  alone,  as  in  fin-ger,  lin-ger,  etc.,  in  which 
words  the  g  has  its  own  sound  and  fdnns  no  part  of  the  repre- 
sentation of  this  sound. 

73.  G.  With  the  base  of  the  tongue  and  the  soft 
palate  in  perfect  contact,  close  also  the  nasal  passages; 
the  attempt  to  vocalize  will  result  in  the  sound  of  g,  as 
iu  gate,  which  occupies  the  same  place  in  the  palatal 
series  as  5  in  the  labial  —  the  last,  or  closest,  sub-vocal. 

The  letter  g  is  unfortunately  often  used  to  represent  the  more  open 
sound  of  j, 

LINGUALS. 

74.  Th.  The  sub-vocal  th,  as  in  this,  is  a  linguo- 
dental.  Though  the  occasion  of  so  much  trouble  to 
foreigners  learning  our  language,  it  is  of  the  easiest  pro- 
duction. 

Place  the  tip  of  the  tongue  under  and  against  the 

edges  of  the  upper  teeth  and  expel  the  vocalized  breath 

between  the  teeth. 

The  above  simple  direction,  aided  by  reasonable  attention  and 
perseverance  will  enable  any  person,  whose  mouth  has  not  be- 
come actually  ossified,  to  acquire  this  sound  perfectly. 

75.  Z.  To  produce  the  sound  of  z,  as  in  buzz,  the 
tongue  takes  the  same  general  position  as  for  the  trilled 
r;  but  the  tip  is  a  little  less  elevated  and  is  brought  very- 
near  to  the  teeth,  which  are  nearly  or  quite  closed. 

The  close  resemblance  of  this  position  to  that  for  thy  accounts  for 
the  Frenchman's  treatment  of  that  sound,  th,  in  speaking 
English. 

76.  D.  Place  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against  the  hard 
palate,  so  as  to  completely  obstruct  the  oral  passage,  the 
position  for  n;  close  the  nasal  passages  also,  permitting 
no  breath  to  escape.    The  attempt  to  vocalize  will  then 

3 


34  PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 

result  in  the  sound  of  the  letter  d^  the  last  sub-vocal  in 

the  lingual  series.    Like  h  and  g^  it  is  non-continuant. 

The  same  error  is  made  in  attempting  to  produce  this  sound  sepa- 
rately that  was  mentioned  in  connection  with  h.  The  organs 
are  allowed  to  pait,  permitting  the  breath  to  escape  and  form 
the  syllable  duh.  Let  no  breath  escape  until  the  tone  has 
ceased. 

ASPIRATES. 

77.  Wh.  If  un vocalized  breath  be  expelled  with 
the  lips  closely  contracted,  as  for  the  semi-vowel  w^  the 
sound  produced  is  that  represented  by  wh^  as  in  wliat^ 
a  labial  aspirate. 

It  has  been  a  disputed  point  whether  this  sound  is  simply  a  whis- 
pered w  or  a  compound,  h  +  w,  the  w  of  the  compound  being 
the  full  sub-vocal.  The  editors  of  Webster  have  seemed  to 
waver  on  this  point,  but  such  phonologists  as  Ellis  and  Bell 
pronounce  it  to  be  a  distinct  and  simple  aspirate. 

A  failure  to  discriminate  between  this  sound  and  its  cognate,  iv, 
constitutes  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  English  cockney  dia- 
lect, in  which  when,  tvhat,  which,  become  wen,  wat,  tvich,  etc. 

78.  F  (Ph).  The  labio-dental  aspirate/,  is  the  cog- 
nate of  V,  The  lower  lip  is  placed  against  the  upper 
teeth  and  un  vocalized  breath  expelled. 

79.  P.  If  the  un  vocalized  breath  be  accumulated 
behind  the  closed  lips  and  they  be  suddenly  parted,  the 
puff  of  escaping  air  yields  the  sound  of  the  letter  p,  a 
labial  aspirate. 

80.  H.  The  forcible  aspiration  known  as  the  sound 
of  A,  is  usually  classified  as  a  palatal.  It  is,  however, 
somewhat  anomalous  in  character,  being  capable  of  pro- 
duction in  any  of  the  vowel  positions  indifferently,  as 
can  be  seen  by  uttering  the  words  aha^  oho^  and  similar 
combinations,  in  which  the  whole  is  pronounced  with- 
out change  of  position. 

It  is  simply  a  sudden  expulsion  of  the  breath  with  any_  open  posi- 
tion of  the  organs,  and  the  Greeks  were  consistent  in  rejecting 
it  as  an  independent  sound,  and  in  denying  it  a  letter  for  its 
representation. 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  35 

8 1 .  Sh.  The  mixed  palatal  sh^  the  cognate  of  zh,  is 
clearly  a  single  element.  The  blade  of  the  tongue  is 
well  arched  toward  the  hard  palate,  the  teeth  are  nearly 
or  quite  closed,  and  the  breath  is  thus  expelled  with 
much  friction,  giving  a  highly  aspirated  sound. 

This  sound  is  represented,  in  English  orthography,  by  a  great 
number  of  symbols,  mostly  digraphs,  as  sh,  ci,  ti,  ch,  etc. 

82.  Ch.  The  sound  of  cA,  heard  in  child^  chin^  is  the 
cognate  of  ^  and,  like  it,  a  compound  difficult  of  analysis. 
The  analysis,  ch=t-\- y^  is  probably  nearer  the  truth  than 
the  more  common  one,  ch=t-\-sh;  but  its  relation  to 
either  of  these  combinations  is,  doubtless,  that  of  simi- 
larity rather  than  identity.  In  its  formation  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  is  placed  against  the  hard  palate,  and  the 
teeth  shut.  The  closed  organs  are  then  suddenly  parted, 
and  the  escaping  breath  yields  the  sound  of  ch. 

83.  K.  The  sound  of  ^,  often  represented  by  other 
letters,  as  c,  c/^,  gh^  is  the  only  purely  palatal  aspirate  in 
our  language,  though  several  are  foand  in  other  lan- 
guages, as  the* German. 

For  its  production  the  soft  palate  is  made  to  meet  the 
base  of  the  tongue,  the  nasal  passages  being  also  closed  — 
the  same  position  as  that  for  its  cognate  g.  When  this 
complete  closure  is  suddenly  broken  by  the  unvocalized 
breath,  the  sound  of  k  results. 

84.  Th  (aspirate).  This  sound  differs  from  the  sub- 
vocal  th  only  in  the  lack  of  vocality.  The  tip  of  the 
tongue  is  placed  under  the  edges  of  the  upper  teeth,  and 
the  breath  is  blown  out  between  the  teeth.  It  is  a 
linguo-dental. 

The  substitution  of  this  sound  for  that  of  s,  constitutes  the  fault 
known  OS  lisping.  The  simple  direction  for  its  cure  is:  Keep 
the  tongue  within  the  teeth  while  sounding  s. 

The  remark  with  regard  to  the  teaching  of  the  sub-vocal  th  to 
foreigners,  applies  with  equal  force  to  this. 


36  PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 

85.  S.  If  the  tip  of  the  tongue  be  turned  slightly- 
upward  near  the  upper  teeth,  as  for  2;,  and  unvocalized 
breath  be  passed  over  it,  the  sound  of  s  will  be  the  re- 
sult. It  is  a  fine,  sharp  whistle.  The  common  mouth, 
however,  too  often  renders  it  as  a  coarse  hiss. 

This  and  its  cognate,  z,  are  sometimes  called  sibilants. 

86.  T.  The  letter  t  represents  the  sound  of  the  puff 
of  breath  set  free  by  the  sudden  parting  of  the  middle 
closure  of  the  mouth,  that  formed  by  the  close  contact 
of  the  tip  of  the  tongue  with  the  hard  palate.  If  the 
sound  of  c?  be  produced,  and  the  breath  be  then  blown 
out,  it  yields  this  sound,  the  pure  lingual  aspirate. 


CHAPTER  III. 
PHONOTYPY. 


87.  Phonotypy  is  the  art  of  representing  speech- 
sounds  to  the  eye  by  distinct  and  appropAate  symbols. 

This  term,  originally  given  to  a  particular  system  of  speech-sym- 
bols, may  now  be  appropriately  applied  to  the  whole  art  of  pho- 
netic representation. 

88.  The  ancient  Phoenicians  are  credited  with  making  the  first 
analysis  of  the  sounds  of  speech,  and  with  the  adoption  of  a 
phonetic  system  of  characters  for  the  representation  of  the  sev- 
eral sounds.  This  was  an  inconceivably  great  step  in  linguistic 
science,  but  one  which  has  not  been  repeated.  The  present 
Enghsh  alphabetic  notation  of  sounds,  or  orthography,  is  no  ad- 
vance from  the  Phoenician  system,  but  the  reverse.  It  is,  in- 
deed, so  imperfectly  phonetic  and  so  utterly  unscientific  as 
scarcely  to  deserve  mention  under  this  head  —  except  for  some 
consideration  of  its  defects. 

89.  The  defects  of  our  English  alphabet  may  be 

briefly  specified. 

1.  For  the  representation  of,  say,  forty-five  sounds,  it 
furnishes  but  twenty-six  characters;  and  of  these,  three. 


PHONOLOGt  AND  OETHOEPY.  37 

c,  g,  and  x^  are  worthless,  having  no  sounds  of  their  own. 
Consequently,  one  letter,  as  a,  must  represent  several 
sounds. 

2.  Our  letters  are  unsteady  in  their  powers,  now  rep- 
resenting one  sound  and  now  another,  and  often  no 
sound  at  all.    This  is  the  source  of  great  confusion. 

3.  Our  orthography  is  inconsistent.  Similar  sounds 
find  no  similarity  in  their  symbols,  as  v  and/,  for  exam- 
ple. Single  letters  represent  compound  sounds,  as  long 
iy  long  w,  and^';  while  digraphs  represent  single  sounds, 
as  thy  ph^  etc. 

4.  The  letters  do  not  represent  the  same  sounds  as  in 
other  languages.  Thus  our  long  e  is  represented  in 
other  languages  by  i;  our  oo  sounds,  uniformly  by  u; 
our  long  a,  by  g,  and  all  in  a  far  more  symmetrical  and 
consistent  manner  than  in  English. 

In  short,  a  more  unsystematic,  inconsistent,  uneconomical  method 
of  representing  speech  than  the  present  Enghsh  orthography, 
is  doubtless  impossible  to  human  ingenuity. 

90.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  devise  a  scientific  and 
thoroughly  phonetic  system  of  sound-symbols.  The  most  noted 
among  these  are  the  *'  Standard  Alphabet "  of  Lepsius,  Pit- 
man's "  Phonotypy,"  the  "  Palaeotype  "  and  "  Glossotype  "  of 
Alexander  Ellis,  and  Bell's  "  Visible  Speech."  Many  other 
phonotypic  and  phonographic  systems  have  been  employed  by 
missionaries  and  short-hand  reporters. 

The  Palaeotype  of  Ellis,  presents  a  notation  for  about  400  distinct 
sounds;  but  perhaps  tne  most  ambitious  of  all  these  systems  is 
the  "  Visible  Speech"  of  Alex.  Melville  Bell,  which  undertakes 
to  represent  all  possible  human  utterance  by  simple  characters, 
picturing,  as  it  were,  the  successive  positions  of  the  organs  of 
articulation. 

DIACRITICAL  MARKS. 

91.  The  inadequacy  of  the  English  alphabet  is  such 
that  for  the  most  ordinary  purposes  of  orthoepy,  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  employ  an  auxiliary  system  of 
diacritical  marks — guide-boards  on  the  heads   of  our 


Vowel  marks 


38  PHONOLOGY    AND*  ORTHOEPY. 

bewildered  letters  —  a  needful  makeshift  to  overcome 
the  incapacity  of  our  orthography  for  exact  represen- 
tation. 

92.  Webster's  Dictionary  employs  the  following 
marks; 

The  Macron, "" 

The  Breve,  ^ 

The  Circumflex  accent,  a 

The  Tilde,  or  Wave,  ^ 

Two  Dots,  •• 

One  Dot,  • 

(   The  Bar,  -  I 

Consonant  marks.  <  The  Dotted  Bar,  — 

(   The  Cedilla,, 

Most  of  these  marks,  and  some  others,  are  used  in  Worcester's 
Dictionary  and  in  the  Gazetteer  and  Biographical  Dictionary, 
of  Dr.  Thomas,  but  not  always  with  the  same  signification. 

93.  Significance  of  the  diacritical  marks.    The 

MACROS  and  breye  having  been  used  from  time  imme- 
morial to  indicate  the  quantity  of  syllables,  they  are 
very  naturally  employed  in  all  dictionaries  to  indicate 
the  regular  long  and  short  sounds  of  the  vowels. 

The  CIRCUMFLEX,  or  circumflex  accent,  long  used  to 
indicate  "  common "  quantity,  is  employed  by  Webster 
to  denote  certain  sounds  of  a,  e^  o,  and  w,  before  r — all 
long  sounds.  By  Worcester  the  same  mark  is  used  to 
mark  the  broad  sound  of  a  and  several  substitute  sounds, 
as  i  with  the  sound  of  long  e,  etc. 

Two  DOTS  above  the  vowel  are  used  by  Webster  to 
mark  the  Italian  a  only;  by  Worcester,  for  the  same 
sound  and  also  for  the  ''  short  and  obtuse  "  sounds  of  all 
other  vowels  when  followed  by  a  single  r  in  accented 
syllables. 

One  dot  beneath  a  vowel  is  used  by  Worcester  uni- 
formly to  indicate  the  obscure  sounds  of  vowels  in  un- 
accented syllables,  for   which   Webster,    in    general, 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  39 

employs  no  notation,  depending  upon  the  application  of 
rules. 

The  dotted  bar,  used  by  Worcester  to  mark  certain 
vowel  sounds,  is  placed  by  Webster  under  s  and  x  to  in- 
dicate their  use  as  sub-vocals  (for  z  and  gz). 

For  the  signification  of  other  marks,  as  the  tilde  or  wave,  the 
cedilla,  etc.,  the  dictionaiies  named  may  be  consulted.  A  com- 
parative table  of  the  markings  of  the  two,  Webster  and  Wor- 
cester, would  have  been  given  but  for  the  difficulty  in  obtaining 
proper  type. 

94.  Spelling  Reform.  The  grievous  defects  of  our 
English  orthography,  as  pointed  out  in  Sec.  89,  have 
become  so  evident  and  so  burdensome  as  to  enlist  the 
most  distinguished  linguistic  scholars  of  this  country, 
and  many  in  England,  among  the  advocates  of  a  re- 
formed alphabet.  The  alphabet  proposed  by  the  Spell- 
ing Reform  Association  is  thought  to  be  the  most  feas- 
ible, as  well  as  the  latest,  scheme  yet  proposed. 

This  alphabet,  with  a  specimen  of  its  use,  is  given  be- 
low.    A  careful  study  of  it  is  recommended. 

It  will  be  observed  that  modified  forms  of  a,  o,  and  m,  are  used 
for  certain  sounds  of  those  letters,  and  diacritical  marks  are  em- 
ployed to  denote  long  sounds  where  great  accur3x;y  is  desirable. 

The  consonant  diagraphs  in  h,  (th,  ch,  etc.)  are  retained.  Dupli- 
cate characters  for  the  sounds  of  long  e  and  a,  of  k,  j,  ng,  and  z, 
are  suggested  for  temporary  use  as  "transition  letters;"  a 
transition  stage  being  thought  necessary  before  that  of  perfect 
phonetic  representation. 

Alphabet  op  the  Spelling  Reform  Association. 
Short.  Vauela.  Long. 

I  i,       it.  £  B=T,  he,  polTc?. 

E  e,       met.  Q  a=e,  potato,  tiiey,  fare. 

A  a,       at.  a,  fare,  (in  America). 

0.  a,       ask,  (sb  Dictionaries).  a,  for. 

0  e,       net,  what.  e,  ner,  wall. 

O  o,       wholly,  (in  New  England).  o,  no,  holy. 

U  u,      but.  U,  born. 

U  u,      full.  u,  rule,  fool,  muv. 

Difflienga.— I  j=ai,  f^nd,  faind.     QU  au,  haus=house.    61 
ei,  eil.    U  h  er  U  U=yu  er  iu,  Unit,  yunit;  rnileic,  miuaic. 


40  PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 

Surd.  Censonants.  Sonant 

P      p,       pet.  B      b,     bet. 

T      t,        tep.  D      d,     did. 

CH  (5h,     dhmdh.  J,  Q  j,  g,  jet,  gem. 

C,  K  c,  k,q,  cake,  cwit  (quit).  G      g,     get. 

F      f,        fit,  filesofer.  V      v.      vat. 

TH  fli,      fhin,  pithy.  TH  tii,    Thfe,  1h%. 

S,  Q  s,  9,    so,  9ent.  Z,  8  z,  8,  zone,  is. 

SH  ^,       ^fe.  ZH    2fh,    filj^un. 

WHwh,     whidh,  (in  England).  J^     w,    wb.  .   „         . 

jl     h        hfe.  Ll,lo.  Rr,rat.  Yy,yB.  Mm,mp. 

'  *  N  n,  no.  NG  ng,  Ui),  king,  igk. 

Silabic : — ^1,  nobl,  nobla ;  m,  spaam,  spaama ;  n,  tokn,  tokna. 

Bj  thfe  fonetic  alfabet  a  dijld  ma  bfe  tet  thfe  art  ev  rfeding,  net 
fli\entli  but  wel,  both  in  fonetic  and  in  erdineri  buks,  in  thrfe 
munths— ai,  efn  in  twenti  aura  ev  fhuro  instruc^iun; — a  task 
hwicJh  ia  rarli  acempli^t  in  thre  yfera  ev  toil  bj  thfe  old  alfabet. 
Hwet  fattiur  er  tBdhur  wil  net  gladli  hel  and  urnestli  wurk  for  this 
grat  bun  tu  ediica^un,— this  pauurful  ma^fen  f er  tiiB  dif iizQiun 
ev  neleg. 

An  elturd  erthegrafi  wil  bfe  unaveidabli  efensiv  tu  thoa  hu 
ar  f urst  celd  upen  tu  iia  it ;  but  ehi  sensibl  and  consistent  nil  sis- 
tem  wil  rapidli  win  thfe  harti  prefurenp  ev  thfe  mas  ev  rjtura. 

(The  same,  omitting  the  transition  letters  a,  g,  9,  and  the  dupli- 
cate letter  k,  and  using  full  forms  for  the  diphthongs  j  and  il). 

Bai  thB  fonetic  alfabet  a  c5haild  ma  bfe  tet  thfe  art  ev  rfedin]?, 
net  fliuentli  but  wel,  both  in  fonetic  and  in  erdineri  bucs,  in  ChrB 
munths — ai,  efn  in  twenti  aurz  ev  thuro  instruc^un; — a  tasc 
hwidh  iz  rarli  acempli^t  in  thrfe  vferz  ev  toil  bai  tiife  old  alfabet. 
Hwet  fathur  er  tfecihur  wil  net  gladli  hal  and  urnestli  wurc  fer 
ttiis  grat  bun  tu  ediuca^un,— this  pauurful  ma^fen  fer  thfe  dif iu- 
^un  'ev  nelej. 

An  elturd  erthegrafi  wil  bfe  unaveidabli  efensiv  tu  thoz  hu  ar 
f urst  celd  upen  tu  yuz  it ;  but  eni  sensibl  and  consistent  niu  sistem 
wil  rapidli  win  tiife  horti  prefurens  ev  thfe  mas  ev  raiturz. 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 


/ 

41 


CHAPTER  IV. 
ORTHOEPY. 


95.  Orthoepy  is  the  art  of  pronunciation,  or  the 
correct  utterance  of  words.  Its  elements  are  Articula- 
tion, Syllabication  and  Accent. 

ARTICULATION. 

96.  Articnlation  is  that  action  of  the  tongue  and 
other  organs  of  speech  by  which  each  oral  element 
receives  its  peculiar  and  proper  character. 

As  the  action  of  the  organs  is  slight  for  vowel  and  great  for  con- 
sonant sounds,  the  chief  labor  of  articulation  is  found  in  con- 
nection with  the  latter,  some  writers  even  limiting  the  term 
articulation  to  the  execution  of  consonant  sounds. 

The  word  is  derived  from  articulus,  a  little  joint,  and  thus  liter- 
ally signifies  the  jointing  of  sveech.  The  fitness  of  this  term 
arises  from  the  natural  law  of  alternation  in  speech,  the  continual 
alternation  of  open  and  close  sounds.  This  law  may  be  illus- 
txated  by  the  following  diagram: 


Two  or  more  consonant  sounds  may  occur  in  the  same  jomt;  and 
two  vocals  capable  of  blending  into  a  diphthong,  may  occur  in 
the  same  node.  Two  consecutive  vocals  not  thus  blended,  must 
be  separated  by  a  slight  hiatus  or  pause. 

97.   Good  articulation  demands,  in  reading  or 
speaking, — 
1.  The  exact  and  proper  utterance  of  each  sound; 


42 


THOXOLOGY  AND  OETHOEPY. 


2.  The  utterance  of  all  and  only  the  required  sounds; 

3.  The  proper  separation  of  the  various  sounds. 

The  corresponding?  errors  in  articulation  are,  1.  Bad  enunciation; 
2.  Omission;  3.  Blending. 


SOME  COMMON  ERRORS  IN  ARTICULATION. 

Analyze  each  of  the  following  errors,  and  determine 
in  what  the  error  consists: 


dlgebray         for 

algebra. 

Ameriky          " 

America. 

attackted          " 

attacked. 

bile 

boil. 

bimehy             " 

by  and  by. 

ketch 

catch. 

childern 

children. 

drownded        " 

drowned. 

equil 

equal. 

ellum 

elm. 

forrud            *' 

forward. 

Mff^ 

figure. 

Febyiiary        " 

February. 

fWeverrCever"" 

for  ever  and  ever 

git 

get. 

holler 

for  halloo. 

hunderd 

hundred. 

Id'no 

I  don't  know 

lickrish 

licorice. 

mushmelon 

musk-melon. 

miskeeter 

mosquito. 

mountanious 

mountainous 

nekked 

naked. 

aicnjiz 

oranges. 

pleg 

plague. 

piller 

pillow. 

peHy 

pretty. 

piidd'n 

pudding. 

wich 

which. 

yep 

yes. 

98.  The  conditions  of  good  articulation,  and  so  of 
good  pronunciation,  are: 

1.  Flexibility  and  vigor  of  the  organs  of  speech; 

2.  An  exact  knowledge  of  the  peculiar  character  of 
each  sound  in  the  language; 

3.  A  knowledge  of  the  principles,  or  rules,  according 
to  which  these  sounds  are  combined;  and, 

4.  Careful  attention  to  the  daily  practical  use  of  this 
knowledge,  converting  knowledge  into  skill. 

Flexibility  of  the  organs  may  be  attained  by  suitable  drill  exer- 
cises, such  as  the  utterance  in  rapid  succession  of  the  sounds 
ah,  ee,  oo ;  it,  ip,  ik;  hade' ,  hadl ',  hado ',  with  vigorous  and  exag- 
gerated facial  action. 

Knowledge  of  the  separate  sounds  may  be  acquired  by  the  study 
of  Chapter  III.  of  this  work;  knowledge  of  their  combination 
according  to  established  rules  or  analogies,  from  the  ensuing 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 


43 


pages,  or,  more  fully,  from  the  standard  dictionaries.  Skill  in 
application  can  be  achieved  only  by  careful  and  miremitting 
effort  and  attention. 

THE  ENGLISH  SOUNDS. 

99.  Tables  of  the  English  sounds,  as  presented  by 
Webster's  Dictionary,  are  here  given  for  convenience  of 
reference.  Each  sound  should  be  studied  carefully  with 
respect  to  its  physical  character,  as  set  forth  in  the  sev- 
eral sections  ofChapter  III.    -    ,^ 

Chart  of  vocals  and  yowel  substitutes. 


Sec- 
tion. 

Symbol 

Name. 

Key-word. 

Substitute 
Symbol. 

Key-word 

51 

a' 

long  ; 

mate 

£ 

prey 

48 

a 

short  , 

mat      \ 

i 

50 

a 

circumfleix 

mre      \ 

gi 

ivhere 

40 

a 

Italian 

ah,  far 

41 

a 

short  Italian 

ask 

43 

a 

broad 

awe 

6 

nor 

53 

e 

long 

me 

i 

marine 

49 

6 

short 

met 

59 

e 

tilde 

verse 

1 

bird 

54 

I 

long 

tine 

y 

my 

52 

i 

short 

tin 

s 

abyss 

44 

0 

long 

hone 

42 

5 

short 

coffee 

a 

what 

46 

6b 

long 

loot 

i; 

do 
rude 

45 

oo 

short 

foot 

is 

wolf 
push 

55 

n 

long 

use.,  tune 

57 

fi 

short 

up 

6 

done 

58 

ft 

circumflex 

urge 

47 

ou 

sound 

ow 

cow 

56 

oi 

oil 

oy 

hoy 

20 

u 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 


100.  Chart  of  consonant  sonnds. 

(Cognates  on  the  game  line.) 


Sui 

-VOCALS. 

Aspirates. 

1 

Symbol. 

Key- 
word. 

Substir- 

tute. 

i?r 

Key- 
word. 

Substitute. 

Sec. 

69 

b 

bet 

p 

pet 

79 

76 

d 

dot 

t 

tin 

ed,th 

86 

73 

g 

get 

k 

kit 
hat 

c,  ch,  gh  q 

83 
80 

71 

1 

jet 

g 

ch 

chin 

82 

64 

lid 

68 

m 

mit 

65 

n 

not 

72 

Q 

finger 

ng 

68 

r 

rat,  tar 

74 

£h 

that 

th 

thin 

84 

67 

V 

vat 

■y 

f 

fat 

ph,  gh 

78 

61 

w 

woe 

wh 

when 

77 

62 

y 

yet 

75 

z 

buzz 

s 

s 

stn 

9 

85 

70 

z(h) 

azure 

si,  zi 

sh 

shot 

9h,  c,  ce,  ci, 
si,  ti,  sch. 

81 

SYLLABICATION. 

101.  A  syllable  is  a  vowel  sound  which  alone,  or  in 
combination  with  one  or  more  consonant  sounds,  forms 
a  word  or  a  separable  part  of  a  word. 

The  letter  I  is  to  be  considered  a  vowel  in  the  termination  hie  and 
sometimes  in  final  el,  the  e  being  strictly  silent.  The  letters  n 
and  r  also  sometimes  perform  the  vowel  oflBce,  as  in  euchre, 
haven,  etc. 

The  longest  syllable  in  the  English  language  is  the  word  strength. 

102.  Syllabication  is  the  separating  of  a  word  into 

parts  according  to  the  number  of  its  distinct  vowel 

sounds. 

Syllabication  is  the  first  step  towards  determining  the  pronunci- 
ation of  an  unfamiliar  word.    The  difficulty  of  the  process  is 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  45 

much  increased,  in  our  language,  by  the  frequency  of  silent 
letters  and  other  irregularities. 
The  syllabication  of  words  in  spelling  is  of  no  value  to  the  spell- 
ing itself,  but  it  is  of  great  importonce,  espedaJly  to  chilchren, 
as  an  aid  to  pronunciation. 

103.  Two  general  principles  enter  into  syllabica- 
tion, —  the  phonetic,  or  division  with  respect  to  smooth- 
ness and  ease  of  utterance;  and  the  etymological,  or 
separation  with  respect  to  the  derivation  of  the  word. 

Unfortunately  for  us  no  specific  rules  of  much  practical  value  can 
be  given,  so  many  exceptions  arise  from  the  conflict  of  the  two 
principles  named  and  from  other  causes. 

SILENT  LETTERS. 

lOi,  Silent  letters,  or  those  which  are  not  direct 
representatives  of  sounds,  constitute  one  of  the  chief 
hindrances  to  pronunciation.  Many  of  these  are  as 
useless  as  they  are  annoying,  while  others  perform  some- 
what the  same  office  as  diacritical  marks,  governing  and 
indicating  the  sounds  of  other  letters.     Thus: 

a.  Silent  e  final  usually  indicates  the  long  sound  of  the  preceding 
vowel,  as  in  mete,  fanet 

b.  The  doubling  of  a  c6nsonant  usually  indicates  the  short  sound 
of  the  precedmg  vowel,  as  m  fallow,  merry. 

c.  A  silent  u  after  g  indicates  the  hard  sound  of  that  letter  as  in 
guide,  vogue. 

In  vowel  digraphs,  the  silent  letters  serve  to  indicate  the  sound  of 
the  other,  or  active,  vowels;  though  the  great  lack  of  consistency 
and  urdformity  iii  the  influence  which  they  exercise,  renders 
them  less  useful  to  f he  leanier. 

105.  Silent  e  occurs  much  more  frequently  than 
any  other  silent  letter,  and  exercises  a  correspondingly 
great  influence  upon  our  orthoSpy  and  orthography. 
The  following  rules  will  be  found  of  practical  value: 

Rule  1.  JE  final  is  always  silent  except  in  monosyl- 
lables containing  no  other  vowel,  as  be^  we^  and  in 
classical  or  foreign  words,  as  Calliope^  hlase^  etc. 

Rule  2,  IE  is  usually  silent  in  the  termination  ed. 


46  PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 


is  sounded  from 


Exceptions.  (1)  When  preceded  by  d  or  t,  the  e  i 
physiological  necessity,  as  in  hounded,  acted. 


(2)  When  ed  is  followed  bv  ly  or  ness,  the  e  has  its  regular 
short  sound,  as  in  assuredly,  blessedness. 

(3)  A  number  of  adjectives,  mostly  participial,  have  the  short 
sound  of  the  e,  as  aged,  beloved,  blessed,  crooked,  cursed,  dogged, 
hooked,  learned,  winged. 

As  verbs  or  participles,  however,  they  invariably  drop  the  sound 
of  the  e. 

Rule  3.  M  is  usually  silent  in  the  termination  en^ 

cis  in  heaven^  which  should  be  pronounced  as  nearly  as 

possible  in  one  syllable. 

There  are  a  few  exceptional  words,  like  chicken,  kitchen,  hyphen; 
and  the  e  is  sounded  when  preceded  by  I,  m,  n  or  r,  as  in  icooleny 
siren,  etc. 

Rule  4.  JEJ,  though  usually  sounded  in  the  termina- 
tion el^  is  silent  in  a  few  words,  as  chattel,  easel,  hazel, 
ravel,  shovel,  weasel,  etc. 

For  full  lists  of  the  exceptions  under  the  foregoing  rules,  see  sec- 
tions 57  to  61  of  Webster's  Unabridged  and  Academic  diction- 
aries. 

ACCENT. 

106.  Words  of  more  than  one  syllable  have  one  or 
more  vowels  pronounced  with  greater  stress  and  clear- 
ness than  the  rest.    This  stress  is  called  accent.  • 

The  syllabication  of  a  word  being  known,  the  next  question  pre- 
sented is  that  of  the  location  of  accent. 

The  sounds  of  the  letters  occasion  less  difficulty.  The  syllabica- 
tion and  accent  bein^  known,  the  general  rules,  or  analogies, 
of  the  language  furnish  guidance  to  the  pronunciation  of  the 
great  mass  of  English  words,  notwithstanding  all  that  is  said 
of  the  anomalous  character  of  our  language. 

107.  When  two  accents  occur  in  the  same  word, 

they  are  of  unequal  force.     The  heavier  one,  in  such 

cases,  is  called  the  primary  accent.     The  lighter  is 

called  the  secondary  accent.    The  secondary  accent 

nearly  always  precedes  the  primary. 

Nearly  all  words  of  more  than  four  syllables  have  a  secondary 
accent.    Some  very  long  words  have  two  secondary  accents, 


PHONOLOGY  AND  OETHOEPT.  47 

£is  in-com' pre-Jien' si-hiV  i-ty ;  but  no  accent  ever  falls  beyond 

the  si::th  syllable. 
A  few  of  the  simplest  rules,  only,  are  here  given. 

108.  Rules  for  accent. 

Rule  1.  Simple  words  of  two  syllables,  excepting 
amen^  never  have  more  than  one  accent. 

It  is  a  very  common  error  to  pronounce  such  words  as  combat, 

exile,  etc.,  with  full  stress  on  each  syllable.     This  should  be 

carefully  avoided. 
A  similar  error  consists  in  accenting  two  consecutive  syllables  in 

some  words  of  more  than  two  syllables,  as  in  the  words  exactly, 

idea,  etc.,  as  sometimes  heard. 

Rule  2.  In  compound  words  each  part  retains  its 
own  accent,  as  in  morning-glory  emp'ty-hand'ed. 

When  the  component  words  of  a  compound  are  monosyllables, 
each  retains  its  clear  utterance,  as  when  taken  alone,  but  the 
greater  stress  is  laid  on  that  one  which  is  descriptive  or  re- 
strictive of  the  other,  as  in  seed'-corn,  ivheeV -horse. 

jWhen  a  compound  has  come  into  such  common  use,  however,  as 
to  drop  the  hyphen,  it  is  often  accented  like  a  simple  word,  as 
in  cup'hoard,  Mgh'land, 

Rule  3.    Words  which  serve  as  verbs  and  also  as 

nouns  or  adjectives,  usually  have  the  accent  on  the  last 

syllable  wl^en  verbs  —  in  other  cases,  on  the  first  sylla^ 

ble,  as  contest'^  verb;  con' test ^  noun — compound'^  verb; 

compound,  noun  or  adjective. 

Some  words,  however,  as  address',  express',  etc.,  do  not  change 
the  accent  to  denote  the  part  of  speech.  Many  errors  in  pro- 
nunciation come  from  the  failure  to  note  these  exceptions  to  the 
general  rule. 

Rule  4.  All  words  ending  in  sion  or  tion  have  the  ac- 
cent on  the  syllable  next  to  the  last,  the  penultimate 
syllable,  as  in  presenta'tion. 

Rule  5.  Words  ending  in  ical,  or  acal,  generally  have 
the  accent  on  the  syllable  next  preceding,  as  in  ammoni'- 
acalf  fin'ical. 

109.  Monosyllables,  when  taken  alone,  or  when  at 
all  emphatic,  may  be  treated  as  if  accented  syllables.  In 
common  composition,  however,  monosyllabic  pronouns, 


48  PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 

prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  auxiliary  verbs,  and  the 

articles,  are  usually  quite  unemphatic,  and  are  then  to 

be  treated  as  unaccented  syllables,  receiving  the  same 

obscuration  of  the  vowel  sounds.    See  Sees.  117  and  118. 

The  article  the,  before  a  vowel  sound,  has  the  sound  of  long  e  so 
shortened  as  to  resemble  short  i.  Before  a  consonant  sound, 
the  sound  of  the  e  verges  towards  short  u. 

DRILL  WORK.    ANALYSIS  AND  APPLICATION. 

110.  Pronunciation  is  so  greatly  affected  by  habit 
that  it  becomes  necessary,  in  the  endeavor  to  eradicate 
ingrained  errors  and  substitute  correct  for  incorrect 
habit,  to  employ  the  most  rigorous  means  for  enforcing 
attention  and  assisting  memory. 

For  this  purpose,  marking  exercises,  or  drills  in  the 
application  of  diacritical  marks;  analysis  of  words  by 
formula;  and  phonic  spelling,  will  all  be  found  useful. 

Lists  of  words  for  such  exercises  are  given  at  the  end 
of  the  book.  They  are  so  selected  as  to  serve  a  double 
purpose,  all  the  words  being  such  as  are  commonly  mis- 
pronounced by  the  majority  of  speakers.  These  words 
should  all  be  "  looked  up  "  in  the  dictionary,  and  the 
pupil  not  allowed  to  trust  his  past  practice  for  anything. 

The  following  is  suggested  as  a  suitable  formula  for 
the  analysis  of  accented  syllables: 

1.  S-r-i-ga-n-d  is  a  word  of  two  syllables.  Tlie  accented 
syllable  is  b-r-i-g.  Its  vowel  sound  is  ih  (t).  The  letter  i  is 
marked  with  a  breve.    The  word  is  pronounced  brig'  and. 

2.  C-a-u-c-a-s-i-a-n  is  a  word  of  three  syllables.  The  ac- 
cented syllable  is  c-a.  Its  vowel  sound  is  ae.  The  letter  a  is 
marked  with  a  macron ;  si'  has  the  sound  of  sh,  and  the  word 
is  pronounced  cawcS'  shun. 

111.  Phonic  spelling.  No  course  of  instruction  in 
orthoepy  can  safely  omit  giving  a  considerable  amount  of 
drill  in  phonic  spelling,  or  "  spelling  by  sound."  This 
exercise  has  especial  value  in  the  direction  of  articula- 
tion, tending  to  increase  facility  and  accuracy  therein. 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  49 

For  this  purpose  short,  simple  words  should  be  used 
at  first.  The  lists  at  the  end  of  the  book  will  furnish 
proper  material  for  later  work. 

The  teacher  should  insist  upon  the  utmost  exactness 
in  the  utterance  of  each  successive  sound,  according  to 
the  descriptions  of  Chapter  III.,  and  upon  proper  syllab- 
ication. 

RULES  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

112.  Many  of  the  rules  or  analogies  which  we  unconsciously  fol- 
low in  every-day  speech,  are  either  so  difficult  of  exact  and  at 
the  same  time  simple  statement,  or  so  weakened  by  numerous 
exceptions,  as  to  render  their  formal  use  difficult  if  not  unprofit- 
able. Accordingly  it  is  thought  best  to  present  here  only  a 
very  few  of  the  simplest  and  most  useful.  No  attempt  is  made 
to  state  all  the  exceptions  existing. 

113.  Rules  for  consonants: 

Rule  1.  C  when  followed  by  e,  /,  or  y^  has  the  sound 
of  s,  as  in  cede^  city. 

The  exceptions  are  sceptic  (better  spelled  skeptic)  and  scirrhus, 
with  their  derivatives.  In  sacrifice,  sice,  suffice,  discern,  and 
,      their  derivatives,  c  has  the  sound  of  z. 

Ci  and  ti,  before  ate  or  ation,  have  the  sound,  of  shz,  as  in  propi- 
tiate, pr(munciation. 

Rule  2.  C  when  followed  by  a,  o,  u,  ?,  or  r,  and  when 
it  ends  a  syllable,  has  usually  the  sound  of  k,  as  in  cute, 
caustic. 

In  facade,  a  French  word,  c  has  the  sound  of  s. 

Rule  3.  G  has  its  own  or  "hard"  sound  before  a,  o, 
w,  Z,  or  r,  and  at  the  end  of  a  word,  as  in  gun,  drug. 

The  only  exception  is  the  obsolescent  word  gaol,  and  its  deriv- 
atives. 

O  is  also  hard  in  the  derivatives  of  words  ending  in  ^,  as  drug- 
gist, craggy.  It  has  usually  the  sound  oij  before  e,  i,  or  y,  but 
not  always. 

Rule  4.  ^  has  its  second  sound,  known  as  ng,  before 
the  sounds  of  k  and  g  hard,  as  in  finger,  thankful. 
Exception:  When  the  gr  or  k  sound  begins  an  accented  syllable, 
the  preceding  n  has  its  common  sound  ('w  as  in  no),  as  in  con- 
cord'ance,  tranquillity. 

4 


50  PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 

Rule  5.  Q  has  always  the  sound  of  k.  It  is  always 
followed  by  w,  which  has  the  sound  of  w^  as  in  quarts 
unless  silent,  as  in  mosque^  liquor. 

Rule  6.  X  has  the  sound  of  gz  when  followed  by  an 
accented  vowel,  as  in  exact\  exertion.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  a  word  it  has  the  sound  of  Zj  as  in  Xerxes. 

A  very  common  error  in  pronunciation  consists  in  giving  x  the 
sound  of  ks  before  an  accented  vowel,  in  violation  of  the  above 
rule. 

Rule  7.'  IT  has  its  own  sound  at  the  beginning  of  a 
syllable,  as  in  ye.,  beyond.  In  other  situations,  and  when 
it  constitutes  the  syllable,  it  has  the  vowel  office,  as  in 
my^  abyss^  yclept. 

114.  Towels  in  monosyllables  and  accented 
syllables.  In  the  statement  of  the  following  rules, 
monosyllables  are  considered  as  accented  syllables. 

Rule  1.  An  accented  vowel  at  the  close  of  a  syllable 
has  usually  its  long  or  name  sound,  as  in  za'^ty^  pa'triot. 

Rule  2.  An  accented  vowel  followed  by  a  single  con- 
sonant (except  r)  in  the  same  syllable,  generally  has  its 
regular  short  sound,  as  in  man'ly^  lin'en. 

Rule  3.  An  accented  vowel  in  a  syllable  ending  in 

silent  e  preceded  by  a  single  consonant  (except  r),  has 

its  regular  long  sound,  as  in  mice^  debate. 

The  three  rules  just  given  constitute  the  chief  foundation  of  the 
"  phonetic  "  method  of  teaching  reading. 

Rule  4.  In  accented  syllables  ending  in  r  final  or  r 
followed  by  another  consonant,  and  in  derivatives  of 
such  words, 

(1)  A  has  its  full  Italian  sound  (a),  as  in  bam,  bar, 
debarred. 

(2)  2^  has  its  third  sound  (ej,  as  in  fern,  infer,  in- 
ferred. 

(3)  J  has  the  sound  of  tilde  e,  (^)  as  in  sir,  stir,  stir- 
ring. 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  51 

-  (4)  O  has  liiore  commonly  the  sound  of  broad  a  (6), 
as  in  nor,  storm;  but  sometimes  equals  circumflex  u^ 
as  in  word^  or  long  o,  as  in  ford,  forge. 

(5)  TJ  has  its  third  sound  (fi)  as  in  cur,  curt,  incurred. 

(6)  Y  has  the  sound  of  tilde  e,  as  in  myrtle,  syrtic. 
Rule  5.  An  accented  syllable  ending  in  r  doubled  or 

r  followed  by  a  vowel,  has  the  regular  short  sound  of  its 
vowel,  as  in  mirror,  heroine. 

This  rule  is  analogous  to  Rule  2. 

Rule  6.  In  most  monosyllables,  and  some  other 
words,  when  followed  by  .^,  ft,  ss,  st,  sk,  sp,  and  some- 
times nt  and  nee,  a  has  its  short  Italian  sound,  as  in  pass, 
after,  dance. 

Rule  7.  A,  when  followed  by  unch^  und,  or  unt,  has 
its  full  Italian  sound,  as  in  launch,  laundry,  haunt. 

This  rule  is  not  given  because  of  its  scope,  but  because  it  covers  a 
class  of  words  especially  liable  to  abuse  in  pronunciation. 

Rule  8.  JJ  preceded  by  r  has  the  sound  of  long  oo, 

as  in  rule,  ruin,  except  in  a  few  familiar  monosyllables 

and  their  derivatives,  as  run,  rush,   which  take  the 

short  u. 

U  never  has  its  own  long  sound  when  preceded  by  r.  This  rale 
(Rule  8)  is  in  fact  an  exception  to^Rule  1,  but  is  worthy  of  sepa- 
rate statement.  • 

115.  Practice  lists  under  the  foregoing  rules. 

Let  each  word  in  the  following  lists  be  studied  analyti- 
cally, and  referred  to  the  proper  rules  in  Sections  113 
and  114.  The  use  of  the  following  formula,  or  some 
similar  one,  in  recitation,  is  recommended: 

(1)  C-h-€i-r-a-c-t-e-r  is  a  word  of  three  syllables.  The  accented 
syllable  is  c-h-a-r.  It  ends  in  r  followed  by  a  vowel;  it  thera- 
fore  falls  under  Rule  5,  Sec.  114,  and  the  vowel  a  has  its  short 
sound  (S). 

(2)  D-o-c-il-e  is  a  word  of  two  syllables;  d-o-c  is  the  accented 
syllable.  It  ends  in  a  single  consonant,  hence  it  falls  under 
Rule  2,  Sec.  114,  and  the  vowel  o  has  its  short  sound  (5).  C  is 
followed  by  i,  and  therefore  has  the  sound  of  s,  according  to 
Rule  1,  Sec.  113.    Tlie  word  is  pronounced  dos'il. 


52 


PHONOLOGY  AND   ORTHOEPY. 


The  syllabication  and  accent  must  first  be  determined 
from  the  dictionary,  if  need  be. 


List  1. 

1.  anemone 

2.  arable 

3.  agile 

4.  alternate 

5.  Arabic 

6.  canine 

7.  caravan 

8.  clangor 

9.  currish 

10.  cuiTy 

11.  docile 

12.  enervate 

13.  extirpate 

14.  horrid 

15.  larynx 

16.  matron 

17.  myrmidon 

18.  orange 

19.  peremptory 

20.  siren 

21.  sirup 

22.  tartaric 

23.  tirade 

24.  virulent 
^5.  whorl 


List  2. 

1.  aunt 

2.  craunch 

3.  donkey 

4.  dauntless 
6.  demoniacal 

6.  erudite 

7.  fast 

8.  harass 

9.  haunted 

10.  jaunty 

11.  miracle 

12.  narrow 

13.  panegyric 

14.  paragon 

15.  ruthless 

16.  rafter 

17.  saunter 

18.  terrapin 

19.  truculent 

20.  tarry  (verb) 

21.  tarry  (adj.) 

22.  taunt 

23.  ursine 

24.  wafted 

25.  zoology 


VOWELS  IN  UNACCENTED  SYLLABLES. 

116.  The  vowels  of  unaccented  syllables  undergo, 
in  most  cases,  some  obscuration  or  corruption  of  sound. 
These  changes  take  place,  however,  according  to  quite 
uniform  analogies,  admitting  of  tolerably  simple  and 
exact  formulation. 

The  tabulation  of  these  rules  given  below  is  adapted 
from  the  discussion  in  Webster's  Dictionary,  by  special 
permission  of  the  publishers. 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  53 

It  would  be  remiss  not  here  to  state  the  fact  that,  after  all,  the 
most  marked  difference  between  unrefined  and  refined  speech, 
between  boorishness  and  elegance  of  pronunciation,  consists  in 
the  management  of  unaccented  syllables.  Here  it  is  that  vo- 
calization and  articulation  are  both  liable  to  be  defective, 
smothered,  and  bungling  instead  of  clear,  clean-cut,  and  ready. 
Increased  elegance  and  effectiveness  of  speech  will  amply 
repay  .even  protracted  and  painful  self-discipline  in  this  direc- 
tion. 

117.  Unaccented  syllables  may  best  be  separated 
into  THREE  classes: 

1.  Those  ending  in  a  consonant. 

2.  Those  ending  in  or  consisting  of  a  vowel  (not 
silent  e). 

3.  Those  ending  in  silent  e  preceded  by  a  consonant. 


RULES  FOR  UNACCENTED  VOWELS. 

Class  1. 
Vowels  in  Unaccented  Syllables  ending  in  a  ConsonanL 

General  rule.  The  vowel  has  in  strict  theory  its 
regular  short  sound,  as  in  entrust',  undo'. 

Caution.  Carefully  avoid  the  sound  of  short  u  in  such 
words  as  silent^  eVement^  etc. 

Exception  1.  A  and  o  generally  verge  toward  short 
w,  as  in  big'o^,  ramp'aw^. 

Exception  2.  E^  *,  and  y  followed  by  r  in  the  same 
syllable,  have  the  sound  of  the  second  u  in  sulphur^  as 
in  read'er,  ta'^eV,  ^oltyr. 

Exception  3.  Digraphs.  Ai  equals  short  e  or  i,  as  in 
mount'am,  mamtain';  e^,  ey  and  ie  have  the  sound  of 
short  i,  as  in  surfeit,  }our' ney;  ow  has  the  sound  of  short 
w,  as  in  vig'oroMS. 

Exception  4.  Some  Latin  words  have  the  long  sound 
of  the  vowel  in  the  terminal  syllable,  as  in  cii' ses. 


54 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 


erons  that 

bromide, 
long. 

o 

1 

S    .2 

«  y  O  aJ 

fl 

.2 
2 

aa  . 

^ 

ii 

e3 

|S.| 

1 

^^li. 

o  .- 

a. 

t§i 

CO 

a    -1 

§1 

^  a 
^  a 

2 
1 

1. 

S 

1  1 
i  1 

o  2  «>  aj 

2"S 

1 

1 
1 

a 

3    ? 

ll 

2  '■S-""a 

|5J 

a 
a 
o 

m 

C5> 

1 

1 

ml 

ali 

PI 
II  i 

1 

a 

00 

» 

s 

a     c 

^  g^ 

^5 

s 

K 

1 

1-H 

^     ci 

r4  5« 

rn'       W« 

T-:©* 

'-< 

vH 

, 

, 

^ 

, 

, 

, 

fi 

^ 

^ 

M 

O 

P 

>^ 

1 

3C 

11. 

'         00 

S     a 

II 

^    1 

5 

1 

.2 

.2—  c> 

1 

i 

1 

<^«  -1 

»  00 

« -f-^ 

s    « 

in 

c3 

^^" 

a  fl  i2 

lili 

IJJi 

« «5 

i  :5't 

1:3 
I  11 

•a  a 

el 

^     a 

s  i 

S    £■ 

O         C3 
5       -S 

t 

1 

m 

a   . 

a:  §  '« 

c.2g 

3 
'J 

<»  -  «  u  b 

oo 

iii 

i?   S? 

ill 

.-ti  O  (»  o 

i     --I 

CD          ri2 

i     II 

CDS        i^'Q 

■!i  ii 

il 

lii 

a  a  ;i 

til 

so 

^^  5 

i« 

1  ^ 

OS     a 

C5 

^ 

ua 

^<rf     so 

W^ 

rH     e» 

K    i:^ 

t4 

ei 

^si 

PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY.  65 

119.  Drill- work.  The  analysis  of  syllables  by  form- 
ula will  be  found  to  afford  not  only  an  effective  means  of 
enforcing  application  and  retention  of  the  forgoing  rules, 
but  also  a  logical  drill  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  other  in 
the  whole  round  of  school  work. 

The  following  formula,  or  any  similar  one,  may  be 
used  in  connection  with  the  practice  lists  here  given: 

FORMULA. 

(1)  In  the  word  c-o-m-h-a-t,  h-a-t  is  an  unaccented  syllable  end- 
ing in  a  consonant.  It  falls  under  class  1,  exception  1 :  "J.  and 
0  usually  verge  toward  short  m."    The  syllable  is  pronounced 

(2)  In  the  word  j^-a-r-a-c-l-e-t-e,  the  second  a  is  an  unaccented 
syllable  consisting  of  a  vowel.  It  therefore  falls  under  class  2: 
"  A  usually  has  its  short  Italian  sound."  The  syllable  is  pro- 
nounced   . 

C'l-e-t-e  is  an  unaccented  syllable,  ending  in  silent  e  preceded 
by  a  consonant.  It  therefore  falls  under  class  3:  "^  has  its 
long  sound  slightly  abridged."    The  syllable  is  pronounced 

Practice  Lists.  In  the  following  words,  analyze  the  accented 
syllables  according  to  formula  in  Section  115;  the  unac- 
cented, according  to  that  just  given.  The  words  are  arranged 
in  a  progressive  order  corresponding  to  the  order  in  which  the 
rules  are  presented. 

List  1.  List  2. 

1.  nomad  1.  estimate 

2.  solemn  2.  communicative 

3.  government  3.  chimera 

4.  character  4.  direction 

5.  com*batant  6.  irascibility 

6.  maintain  6.  hospitality 

7.  silent  T.  chloride 

8.  sleeplessness  8.  civilization 

9.  indifferent  9.  telephone 

10.  cathedral  10.  respiratory 

11.  banana  11.  polonaise 

12.  aorta  12.  gondola 

13.  separate  13.  orthoepy 

14.  comrade  14.  obligatory 


56 


PHONOLOGY   AND   ORTHOEPY* 


List  1. 

15.  secondary 

16.  incomparable 

17.  elementary 

18.  paraclete 

19.  benefited 

20.  remunerative 


List  2. 

15.  lindfsputably 

16.  gaifrulous 

17.  literature 

18.  virfilently    . 

19.  inopportunely 

20.  phonotype  ^ 


120.  Words  commonly  mispronounced. 

It  is  urged  that  the  student  make  himself  accurately  acquainted 
with  the  pronunciation  of  all  the  words  in  the  following  lists. 
They  will  also  furnish  material  for  drill  work  in  connection  with 
preceding  sections  of  the  work. 


I. 

1.  abdomen 

2.  acclimate 

3.  acoustics 

4.  address 

5.  Adonis 

6.  albumen 

7.  allies 

8.  allopathy 

9.  allopathic 

10.  almond 

11.  alternate 

12.  apparatus 

13.  area 

14.  aroma 

15.  aspirant 

16.  banana 

17.  behemoth 

18.  benzine 

19.  blatant 

20.  bombshell 

21.  bQuquet 

22.  bonnet 

23.  brigand 

24.  bronchitis 

25.  brooch 


II. 

1.  Calliope 

2.  Canaan  * 

3.  carbine 

4.  Caucasian 

5.  chastisement 

6.  coadjutor 

7.  combatant 

8.  comparable 

9.  construe 

10.  creek. 

11.  cupola 

12.  cushion 

13.  deficit 

14.  depot       ^ 

15.  discourse^ 

16.  dishonest 

17.  docile 

18.  donkey 

19.  envelope 

20.  enervate 

21.  erring 

22.  errand 

23.  exemplary 

24.  exquisite 

25.  extol 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 


67 


III. 


ly. 


1.  facade 

1.  lath 

2.  February 

2.  lamentable 

3.  filiale 

3.  leisure 

4.  finance 

•     4.  li'en 

6.  forgery 

5.  lycetm 

6.  frontier 

6.  machination 

7.  maniacal 

7.  franchise 

8.  fiig«e- 

8.  multiplicand 

.9.  gape 

9.  n'aivete' 

10.  gauntlet 

10.  national 

11.  giraffe 

11.  nWad 

12.  glalnqur 

12.  obligatory 

13.  gladiolus 

13.  Orion 

14.  granary 

14.  orotund 

15.  homoeopathy- 

15.  Palestine 

16.  hydropathy 

16.  parent 

17.  indist)utable 

17.  patriotism 

18.  inquiry 

19.  m'tegral 

18.  patron 

19.  peremptory 

20.  kolate 

21.  isotherm 

20.  photographer. 

21.  placard/ 

22.  italic 

22.  portent 

23.  jaguai/ 

23.  porcelain 

24.  jaundice 

24.  precedence 

25.  jugular 

25.  precedent 

V. 

VI. 

1.  prelate 

1.  squalid 

2.  presentation" 

2.  squalor 

3.  produce  (noun) 

3.  stalwart 

4.  pronunciation 

5.  pyramidal 

6.  raillery 

4.  tale 
6.  taunt 

6.  te/egrap^er 

7.  Thalia 

7.  rapine 

8.  raspberry 

8.  tiiiy  , 

9.  rational 

9.  tomato 

10.  recess        . 

11.  recitative' 

10.  tranquil 

11.  tribune 

12.  recruit 

12.  tri^ulent 

58 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOEPY. 


13.  reparable 

14.  research^ 

15.  resource^ 

16.  respiratory 

17.  rMl^ 

18.  romance 

19.  root 

20.  sacrifice^ 

21.  sagacious 

22.  salve 

23.  scarcely 

24.  seine 

25.  sha'n't 


YI. 

13.  tryst 

14.  vagary 

15.  vdPet 

16.  v1ear 

17.  w^ter 

18.  won't 

19.  wrath    , 

20.  yacht  j^ 

21.  ySaAing 

22.  yolk 

23.  you^ 

24.  zodiacal 

25.  zoology 


INDEX. 


A.  page. 

A,  as  in  care 26 

A,  Italian  sound  of 23 

A,  long-  sound  of 26 

A,  short  sound  of 25 

A,  short  Itahan  sound  of.  23,51 
A,  broad  sound  of 24 

A,  in  unaccented  syllables,  53,  54 

Accent 46,47 

Alphabet,  English 36,37 

"    defects  of  36,  37 

"       Phoenician 36 

**        universal 37 

Analysis  of  syllables. .  48,51,55 

Articulation,  process  of 14 

Articulation,  definition,    de- 
mands, etc 41,  42 

Aspirates 18,  34,  44 

Atonies 18. 

B. 

B,  sound  of 31 

Breathing,  process  of 11 

Breve 38 

Broad  a 24 

Bronchi 8 

C. 

C,  rules  for  sound  of 49 

Ch,  sound  of 35 

Chords,  vocal 10 

Circumflex 38 

Circumflex  a 26 

Circumflex  u 28 

Classification  of  oral  elements  17 

19 
Classification  of    unaccented 

syllables 53 

Cognates 18 

Common  errors  in  articula- 
tion   42  I 


Consonants 18 

Consonant  sounds,  table  of . .  44 
Correlative  sounds 21 

D. 

D,  sound  of 33 

Defects  of  EngUsh  alphabet, 

36,37 

Descriptive  phonology 23, 36 

Diacritical  marks 37,  38 

Diagram  of  oral  elements. . .  22 
Diagram  of  articulation    ...  41 

Diaphragm 6, 7 

Digraphs 19 

Diphthongs 19,  27 

Dots,  diacritic 38 

Dotted  bar 39 

Drill  work 48,  51,  55 

E. 

E,  long  sound  of 27 

E,  short  sound  of 25 

E,  tilde 28 

E,  as  in  there 26 

Ear,  the 15 

Elementary  sounds 17,  43 

English  sounds 43,  44 

Epiglottis 11 

Errors  in  articulation 42 

Ew,  as  in  new 27 

Expiration 12 

F. 

F,  sound  of 34 

Formula  for  accented  sylla- 
bles  48,  51 

Formula  for  unaccented  syl- 
lables......  55 


60 


INDEX. 


G. 

G,  sound  of 38,  49 

Glottis 10 

H. 

H,  sound  of 34 

I. 

I,  long  sound  of 27 

I,  short  sound  of 26 

I  as  in  pique 27 

I  as  in  girl 28 

Inspiration 11 

Intercostal  muscles 7 

Italian  a 23 

J. 
J,  sound  of 32 

K. 
K,  sound  of 35 

L. 

L,  sound  of 30 

Labials 19,22,  31 

Larynx 8,9 

Linguals 20,  22,  28 ,33 

Lips 14, 20 

Lists  of  words 52,  55,  66,58 

Long-  vowel-sounds 20,21 

Long  a 26 

"    e 27 

"    i 27 

"    0 24 

"    00 24 

"    u 27 

Lungs 6 

M. 

M,  sound  of 31 

Macron 88 

Mixed  diphthongs 27 

Monosyllables 47, 48 

N. 

N,  nasal  sound  of 30 

N,  palatal  sound  of 32, 49 

Nasal  passages 13, 20 

Ng,  sound  of 32 

Noise 16 


0. 

0,  long  sound  of ,. . . ,  24 

0,  short  sound  of 23 

0  as  in  word 28 

0  as  in  son 28 

Obstruction  of  sound 31 

Oi,  Oy,  sound  of 28 

Oral  elements 17,  22 

Organs  of  speech 18 

"      **  voice 6 

OrthoSpy,  definition  of  . . .  5,  41 

Orthography,      '*      6 

Orthography,    English,    de- 
fects of 37,  38 

Ou,  Ow,  sound  of 25 

P. 

P,  sound  of 34 

Palate 13 

Palaeotype 37 

Palatals 19,22,25,32 

Pharynx 11 

Phoenician  alphabet 36 

Phonetics 5,  16 

Phonetic  print 40 

Phonic  spelling 48 

Phonology,  definitions 5, 16 

*'         descriptive  ..  28,36 

Phonotypy 5,  36 

Practice  lists. .  51,  52,  55,  56-58 
Pronunciation,  roles  of. .  49,  50 

Q. 

Q,  sound  of 50 

Quality 21 

Quantity..; 20 

R. 

R,  effect  of  on  vowel-sounds, 

50, 51 

R,  sounds  of 29,  30 

Respiration 11 

Rules  foraccent 47 

**     accented  vowels,  50,  51 
'*     unaccented  vowels, 

53,  54 

"     consonants 49 

"     pronunciation ..  49,  50 
*'     silent  e 45,  46 


INI>EX. 


61 


S. 

S,  sound  of 36 

Semi- vowels .21,  29,  30 

Sh,  sound  of 35 

Short  vowel-sounds 20,  21 

"    a 25 

"    e 25 

"    i 26 

"    0 23 

**    00 :...  24 

"    u 28 

Silent  e 45,  46 

'*     letters,  uses  of 45 

Sound • 16 

Speech 17 

Spelling  by  sound 48 

Spelling  reform 39,  40 

Sub-tonics 18 

Sub- vocals 18 

Syllabication 44,  45 

Syllable,  definition 44 

T. 

T,  sound  of 36 

Table  of  vocals 43 

"      consonants 44 

Table  of  rules  for  unaccented 

vowels 54 

Teeth  ...v--. 14,20 

Terminations  in  ed,  el,  etc  45, 46 

Th,  aspirate 35 

Th,  sub-vocal aS 

The,  pronounciation  of 48 

Tilde,  e 28 

Tone 16 

Tonics 18 

Tongue..... ..13,14 

Trachea 8 

Trigraphs 19 

u. 

U,  long  sound  of 27 

U,  short  sound  of 28 

U  as  in  urge 28 

U  preceded  by  r,  rule 51 


Unaccented  syllables,  rules  53 ,54 

Universal  alphabets *.  37 

Uses  of  silent  letters 45 

Uvula 13 

V. 

V,  sound  of ^ .  31 

Visible  speech 37 

Vocal  chords 10 

Vocalization 12 

Vocal  organs 6 

•'     physiology 5,6 

Vocals,  or  vowel-sounds,  17,  20 

Voice.* 16 

Vowel 18 

Vowel  sounds 17,  20,  2:3,  43 

"  '*     rules  for 50,51 

Vowel  in  unaccented  sylla- 
bles  52-54 

Vowel  substitutes. 43 

w. 

W,  sound  of 29 

Webster's  markings 38 

Wh,  sound  of 34 

Words  commonly  m  i  s  p  r  o  - 
nounced 56-58 

X. 
X,  sound  of 50 

Y 

Y,  as  a  consonant 29,  50 

Y  as  in  abt/ss ....  26 

Y  "     my 27 

z. 

Z,    sound  of 33 

Zh,      "       32 


ELEMENTS  OF  ENGLISH  ANALYSIS. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  A  MW  SYSTEM  OF  DIAGRAMS. 


By  STEPHEN  H.  CARPENTER,  Prof,  of  EngHsh  in  the 
University  of  Wisconsin. 


This  book,  the  result  of  the  author's  experience  in  the  class  room,  is 
designed  to  assist  students,  by  a  System  of  Diagrams,  in  obtaining  the 
outline  structure  of  sentences,  which  a  thorough  knowledge  of  English 
grammar  demands,  thus  fixing  in  the  eye  and  mind  the  principles  of  analy- 
sis, a  correct  knowledge  of  which,  as  a  rule,  is  wanting  among  students. 

Price,  in  boards,  25  cents.    Mailed  on  receipt  of  price. 


BECOMMBXDA  TIOKS  : 

"I  am  impressed  that  yon  have  made  grammatical  analysis  so  plain  that 
the  learner  will  find  the  work  an  aid  to  mastering  rather  than  a  hindrance 
to  ordinary  understanding  of  the  language,  as  many  systems  of  analysis  are 
hindrances.  Your  book  presents  the  first  diagrams  which  I  have  seen  that 
are  not  obstacles  to  my  understanding.  I  trust  you  will  take  special  means 
to  bring  this  book  to  the  attention  of  teachers."— President  Parker,  of 
the  River  Fall  Normal  School,  (Wis.) 

"Mrs.  Bateman  adopted  its  suggestions  at  once,  and  finds  it  a  decided  im- 
provement upon  former  schemes.  *  *  *  "We  shall  adopt  it  for  use  in  our 
next  class."— President  Albee,  of  the  Oshkosh  Normal  School,  (Wis.). 

"Most  of  our  works  on  analysis  are  too  complicated  and  prolix;  you  have 
happily  avoided  that  error.  The  statements  are  clear  and  concise;  the  defi- 
nitions good;  and  the  illustrations  excellent.  The  diagrams  are,  in  my  judg- 
ment, a  great  improvement  upon  those  in  most  works  of  the  kind.  Chapier 
xiii  (on  tne  infinitive)  clears  up  a  difficulty  met  by  every  teacher  of  grammar. 
You  are  to  be  congratulated  upon  your  success  in  the  producti6n  of  a  work 
so  excellent,  so  timely,  so  comprehensive,  inso  small  a  compass,  and  that 
will  meet  a  want  so  generally  felt." — Prop.  B.  M.  Keynolds,  of  the  La 
Crosse  High  School^  (Wis.). 

OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRESS: 

"This  is  the  title  of  a  little  book  on  purely  sentential  analysis,  which  ap- 
pears to  us  worthy  of  high  praise  for  its  clearneee,  methodical  arrangement, 
accuracy  and  brevity.  The  simple  yet  helpful  diagrams  —the  chief  oriirlnal 
feature  of  the  work  — admirably  illustrate  the  golden  mean  in  this  kiiid  of 
ocular  aid,  and  can  give  no  ofiense  to  the  most  fastidious  grammarian.  The 
nomenclature  is  that  in  common  use,  the  examples  for  practice  are  well 
selected  and  sufliciently  numerous,  and  in  paper  and  typography  the  book  is 
faultless.  We  heartily  commend  it  to  teachers  and  school  officers."— Ww. 
Journal  of  Education^ 

"  The  design  of  this  little  work  is  to  explain  the  construction  of  the  English 
sentence  upon  philosophical  principles,  and  at  the  same  time  to  exhibit  this 
structure  to  the  eye  by  a  system  of  diagrams  that  will  present  the  aaaiomy 
of  the  sentence  with  no  confusing  details.  This  little  work,  in  few  pages, 
seems  to  cover  the  whole  ground,  and  must  be  commended  at  least  for  its 
brevity.  It  is  the  work  of  one  who  has  encountered  and  surmounted  the 
difficult  task  of  bringing  syntactial  analysis  within  the  comprehension  of 
any  ordinarily  bright  English  scholar.  It  is  the  result  of  years  of  practice 
in  the  class  room— of  that  kind  of  practice  that  '  makes  perfect.'  "  The 
mechanical  execution  of  the  book  is  in  keeping  with  its  intrinsic  merits,  be- 
ing printed  on  new,  clear,  and  beautiful-faced  type,  while  the  diagrams  were 
cast  expressly  for  this  work.— If  isconsin  State  journa  I. 

W.  J.  PARK  &  Co.,  Publishers, 

Madison,  Wis. 


JUST   PUBLISHED. 


A  System  of  Punctuation 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS. 

By  C.  W.  BUTTERFIELD. 


Published  by  WM.  J.  PARK  &  CO.,  Madison,  Wis. 


This  is  a  concise  treatise  on  Grammatical  and  Ehetorical  Punc- 
tuation, intended  especially  for  the  use  of  schools.  Notwithstanding 
this,  it  is  also  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  professional  and  busi- 
ness men  who  desire  to  write  or  correspond  without  fear  of  misap- 
prehension or  mistake. 

Extracts  from  the  Preface. 

"  That  the  principles  of  Punctuation  are  subtle,  and  that  an  exact  logical  train- 
ing is  requisite  for  the  application  of  them  is  claimed  by  some  writers ;  others, 
however,  think  the  subject  is  founded  largely  in  caprice,— that  its  rules  are, 
to  a  great  extent,  conventional.  Neither  of  these  views  is  the  correct  one.  The 
laws  governing  the  uses  of  the  various  characters  of  Punctuation,  require,  it 
Is  true,  a  continued  exercise  of  judgment  in  their  reduction  to  practice ;  for  any 
principle,  however  plain,  necessitates  some  action  of  the  mind  to  fully  compre- 
hend it.    But  these  laws  have,  in  a  large  degree,  become  fixed  by  established 


•  "  But  little  effort  is  requisite  to  convince  pupils  of  the  importance  of 
Punctuation;  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  bring  the  subject  before  tbem  in  a  sys- 
tematic manner,  to  enlist  them  at  once  in  the  study.  It  has  been  the  object  of 
the  author  so  to  treat  it  as  to  lead  the  student,  step  by  step,  and  with  compara- 
tive ease,  from  its  simplest,  to  a  just  comprehension  of  its  most  difficult  princi- 
ples. Accuracy  In  definition,  clearness  in  arrangement,  and  perspicuity  in 
language,  have  been  attempted  in  the  presentation  of  the  various  rules ;  with 
what  success  is  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  public." 

The  work  has  two  principal  divisions.  The  first  treats  of  the  na- 
ture and  uses  of  the  various  characters  of  Punctuation.  The  second 
contains  promiscuous  examples  for  their  application.  What  has  been 
learned  of  the  theory  of  Punctuation,  can  thus  be  put  in  practice. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Butterfield's  System  of  Punctuation  is  at  once  concise  and  full.  It  is  fitted  to 
do  a  good  work.-^DR.  John  Bascom,  President  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 

I  have  examined  Butterfield's  Punctuation  with  a  great  deal  of  interest.  I 
have  long  felt  the  need  of  something  of  the  kind.  I  shall  gladly  call  the  atten- 
tion of  teachers  to  it. — Kennedy  Scott,  County  SupH  of  Columbia  Co.,  Wis. 

Butterfield's  Punctuation  is  a  needed  and  timely'publication.  It  is  clear  and 
concise  in  statement,  methodical  in  treatment,  and  suflSciently  comprehensive 
in  scope  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  general  public.  Its  general  use  in  our  schools 
would  be  of  great  benefit.— Dr.  S.  II.  Carpenter,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Butterfield's  System  of  Punctuation  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher 
and  student.— Prof.  E.  B.  Anderson,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Ihave  examined  Butterfield's  Punctuation  and  am  pleased  with  it.  I  shall 
recommend  it  to  teachers.— H.  Richmond,  County  Sup't  of  Green  Co.,  Wisconsin. 


ifO^. 


David  At  wood's  Publications, 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPOSITION 

OP  THE 

CONSTITUTION  OF  WISCONSIN, 

Br  A.  O,   WRIGHT. 


Published  by  DAVID  ATWOOD,  Madison,  WU. 


We  have  just  issued  the  sixth  edition,  revised  and  corrected,  of  this 
valuable  httle  work —  By  A.  0.  Wright.  The  press  of  the  State 
have  noticed  this  book  in  a  favorable  manner.  It  cannot  fail  to  be- 
come very  useful  to  the  people,  and  as  soon  as  known,  will  occupy 
a  place  in  the  library  of  every  citizen  of  the  State,  who  desires  to 
understand  thoroughly  our  Constitution.  * 

The  following  letters  have  been  received  from  gentlemen  well 
known  as  distinguished  educationists  in  this  State: 
[From  Prof.  Samuel  Fallows.] 

I  have  read,  with  care  and  interest,  the  book  on  "The  Analysis  and  Expo- 
sition of  the  Constitution  of  Wisconsin,"  by  Mr.  A.  O.  Wright. 

It  seems  to  me  to  be  admirably  adapted  to  the  needs  of  teachers  and  schol- 
ars in  the  common  schools  of  Wisconsin,  and  a  valuable  work  of  reference 
for  all  who  wish  a  clear  and  succinct  treatise  on  our  State  Constitution. 

The  analyses  are  thoroughly  made  —  the  language  is  plain  and  simple  — 
the  citation  of  authorities  ample  and  correct. 

If  any  inaccuracies  should  be  discovered  in  this  first  editton,  I  believe 
they  will  be  found  to  be  of  a  minor  nature.  They  can  easily  be  corrected  iu 
A  subsequent  edition. 

Mr.  Wright  deserves  great  praise  for  the  excellent  manner  in  which  he 
has  executed  a  difficult  task.  I  think  his  work  will  have  a  speedy,  wide  and 
permanent  circulation  in  the  state.  Samuel  Fallows,  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction. 

[From  O.  M.  Cokover,  Supreme  Court  Beporter.] 

The  provision  of  our  present  school  laws  which  requires  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  and  that  of  our  own  State  to  be  taught  in  our  public 
schools,  seems  to  me  of  great  importance.  It  is  clear,  too,  that  the  object 
can  not  be  well  accomplished  without  the  publication  of  editions  of  those 
instruments,  accompanied  by  simple,  yet  correct  expositions  of  their  lan- 
guage and  scope. 

I  have  read  with  some  care  a  portion  of  the  little  work  of  Mr.  Wright 
npon  the  Constitution  of  Wisconsin.  It  appears  to  me  to  have  been  pre- 
pared with  a  very  correct  appreciation  of  the  wants  of  our  public  schools, 
and  to  be  in  general,  correct  in  its  exposition  of  the  spirit  and  meaning  of 
the  constitution,  and  well  adapted  to  excite  an  interest  in  the  study  of  that 
instrument,  and  to  impart  useful  information  in  regard  to  it.  Doubtless,  a 
severely  critical  examiHation  of  the  work  will  lead  to  the  detection  of  some 
errors  or  deficiencies,  which  may  be  corrected  in  future  editions.  This  is 
the  common  fate  of  first  editions  of  school  books  which  pioneer  the  way  in 
any  new  department  of  instruction.  But  the  general  aim  and  plan  o  f  the 
volume  are  so  good,  and  its  execution  is  marked  by  so  much  intelligence 
and  care,  that  it  can  hardly  fail,  I  should  think,  to  come  into  general  use  in 
the  schools  of  Wisconsin.    O.  M.  Conover,  Supreme  Court  Beporter. 

I  think  the  work  worthy  of  being  In  every  school  in  the  State,  and  in  the 
hands  of  every  voter.— J.  T.  Luhn,  Co.  SupH  Sauk  Co. 


V 


VB  36566 


JUST   rUBLISHED 


THE    ART    OF    fliONVKCIAJIO^, 


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An  Elementary  Treatisefor  Teachers  and  Schools,  by 

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Though  the  work  Is  designed  for  the  use  of  schools,  it  is  also  adapted  for 
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ELEMENTS  OF  ENGLISH  AKil^SR  ~' 
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This  book,  the  result  of  the  nnib -r's  experi'^:ijce  in 
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AND 

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early  intercourse  of  the  settlers  with  the  Indians,  their  Trails,  Camps, 
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Madison,  Wis. 


